เล่ากันว่า"ไอศครีม"มีต้นกำเนิดมาจากดินแดนในต่างประเทศ ทั้งนี้ได้แพร่กระจายเข้ามาในประเทศไทยเมื่อสมัยรัชกาลที่ 5 ในสมัยนั้นส่วนใหญ่จะใช้รับประทานกันแต่ภายในวังเป็นส่วนใหญ่ เนื่องจากไอศกรีมเป็นอาหารหวานที่ทันสมัยหรืออาจจะเรียกได้ว่าเป็นนวัตกรรมใหมาก็ว่าได้ ใครได้ลองรับประทานไอศกรีมในสมัยนั้นก็ถือว่า เป็นคนที่ก้าวล้ำนำสมัยไปโดยปริยาย
สืบสาวต้นกำเนิดไอศกรีมยุคโบราณ จุดเริ่มต้นของไอศกรีมในระดับสากล นายโทมัส อาร์ควินนี่ เล่าว่า การรับประทานไอศกรีมน่าจะเริ่มต้นกันมาตั้งแต่สมัยจักรพรรดิเนโรห์ แห่งอนาจักรโรมันที่ได้พระราชทานเลี้ยงไอศกรีมแก่เหล่าทหารหาญที่อยู่ในกองทัพของพระองค์ แต่ในขณะนั้นไอศกรีมเกิดจากเป็นการนำหิมะมาผสมเข้ากับน้ำผึ้งและผลไม้ ต่อมาเรียกไอศกรีมประเภทนี้ว่า เชอร์เบ็ท(Sherbet)นั่นเอง แต่ตำนานนี้ก็หาได้เป็นแค่ตำนานเดียวที่เล่าสืบต่อกันมาถึงต้นกำเนิดของไอศกรีมไม่ หากแต่บางกระแสก็ระบุว่าบรรพชนของคนจีนค้นพบไอศกรีมเป็นครั้งแรก เมื่อประมาณ 4,000 ปีที่ผ่านมา ซึ่งลักษณะของไอศกรีมในประเทศจีนทำมาจากข้าวบดผสมกับนมสดที่เย็นจนเป็นนำแข็งและได้มีการสอนให้ทำไอศกรีมให้กับคนอินเดีย
และชาวเปอร์เชียอีกด้วย การก่อกำเนิดไอศกรีมตามตำนานประเทศจีนระบุว่า เป็นเรื่องของความบังเอิญแท้ๆ ทั้งนี้เป็นที่ทราบกันดีว่าประเทศจีนในสมัยนั้นเพิ่งจะมีการรู้จักรีดนมจากสัตว์เลี้ยงที่อยู่ในฟาร์ม เมื่อรีดออกมาจำนวนมากก็บริโภคไม่หมด ประกอบกับน้ำนมเป็นสินค้าที่มีราคาแพงมากๆ คนชั้นสูงเห็นท่าไม่ดีจึงเกิดแนวคิดนำน้ำนมไปหมกซ่อนไว้ในหิมะนัยว่าเพื่อต้องการที่จะถนอมน้ำนมเอาไว้รับประทานได้นานๆ เกิดขึ้นด้วยความบังเอิญแท้ๆ จนกระทั่งน้ำนมที่นำไปหมกไว้ในหิมะกลายเป็นนมแช่แข็งขึ้นมาในบัดดล จากนั้นก็มีการพัฒนารูปแบบจากนมแช่แข็งที่แสนจะสุดธรรมดาให้กลายเป็นน้ำผลไม้แช่แข็ง ในส่วนของราชวงศ์โมกุลได้นำเอานมต้มมาผสมกับถั่วพิสตาซิโอจนเกิดเป็นของหวานแช่แข็งเรียกกันว่า Kulfi ซึ่งเชื่อกันว่าเป็นแบบแผนของไอศกรีมในยุคโบราณ จนปลายศตวรรษที่ 13 มาร์โคโปโล เดินทางไปจีน และชื่นชอบ จึงนำสูตรกลับไป อิตาลีขณะเดินทางมีการเติมนมลงไป กลายเป็นสูตร ของเขาโดยเฉพาะ และแพร่หลายไปในอิตาลี ฝรั่งเศสและข้ามไปอังกฤษ คนอิตาลีถือว่าตนเองเป็นต้นตำรับไอศกรีมแบบที่นำมาปั่นให้เย็นจนแข็ง เรียกว่าเจลาติ (Gelati) ประเทศอิตาลีและมีการพัฒนาไปมากจนทำให้อิตาลีได้ชื่อว่าเป็นแหล่งไอศกรีมเลิศรสเลยทีเดียว ขณะเดียวกันคนอิตาลีมักจะทึกทักเอาว่าบรรพชนของตนเป็นคนค้นพบไอศกรีมเป็นครั้งแรกเสมอมา แถบยุโรปประมาณ ค.ศ.1670 ฟรานเอสโก ได้นำไอศกรีมไปจำหน่ายภายในร้านกาแฟของเขาเพื่อให้บริการลูกค้าของเขาปรากฏว่าได้รับความสนใจกันอย่างกว้างขวางมากทีเดียวไอศกรีม
ได้รับการพัฒนากระบวนการผลิตขึ้นเรื่อยๆ จนกระทั่ง ค.ศ.1846 นางแนนซี่ จอห์นสัน ก็สามารถสร้างเครื่องผลิตไอศกรีมขึ้นมาได้เป็นครั้งแรก และนับเป็นจุดที่ทำให้ไอศกรีม เผยแพร่เข้าไปทั่วโลกก็ว่าได้ เส้นทางการแพร่หลายของเจ้าไอติม ที่น่าสนใจก็คือเมื่อประมาณศตวรรษที่ 14 ไอศกรีมได้แพร่หลายเข้าไปในประเทศเทศอิตาลีและฝรั่งเศส ซึ่งในประวัติศาสตร์ ของไอศกรีมช่วงนี้ระบุว่า ในงานฉลองอภิเษกสมรสระหว่างแคเธอรีน เดอ เมดิซี แห่งเวนิชกับกษัตริย์เฮนรี่ที่ 2 ของฝรั่งเศสได้มีการนำ ของหวานกึ่งแช่แข็งมาเสริฟแขกเหรือที่มาร่วมงาน สำหรับรูปร่างหน้าตาเหมือนกับไอศกรีมไม่มีผิดเพี้ยน และนี้ก็เป็นอีกจุดหนึ่งทำให้ ไอศกรีมกลายเป็นของหวานของคนค่อนโลกไปโดยปริยาย เล่ากันว่าในช่วงแรกๆที่มีไอศกรีมต้องผ่านการผลิตที่ค่อนข้างจะยุ่งยากเนื่องจากต้องใช้เวลาและต้องลงแรงตามสมควร เมื่อได้ผลิตผลจากการลงแรงที่เป็นไอศกรีมเย็นเฉียบแล้ว ก็ต้องเกณฑ์คนมาช่วยกันรับประทานให้หมดมิเช่นนั้นแล้วไอศกรีมก็จะละลายกลายเป็นน้ำไปในเวลาอันรวดเร็ว กลายเป็นการลงทุนที่สูญเปล่าในที่สุด การแพร่หลายของไอศกรีมจากฝรั่งเศสเข้าไปอเมริกา ในช่วงต้นศตวรรษที่ 17 จนไอศกรีมกลายเป็นของหวานที่ผู้คนชื่นชอบกันมาก ในช่วงนี้ตำนานไอศกรีมในสหรัฐอเมริกาโดยเฉพาะ "ไอศกรีมซันเดย์"ได้ถือกำเนิดขึ้นท่ามกลางความอึมครึมเนื่องจากยังไม่มีข้อสรุปที่แน่ชัดว่า เกิดขึ้นในรัฐไหนกันแน่ แต่ที่แน่ๆในราวๆปี พ.ศ. 2435 ไอศกรีมซันเดย์ได้ถือกำเนิดขึ้นท่ามกลางความตื่นเต้นของอเมริกันชนสมัยนั้นอย่างถ้วนหน้า "ไอศกรีมซันเดย์"ถูกนักบวชประท้วง เล่ากันสืบมาว่า ในรัฐนิวยอร์มีการนำคำว่า "ซันเดย์"มาใช้ตั้งชื่อไอศกรีม สืบเนื่องจากทางร้านขายยาที่มีชื่อ "แพลตต์แอนด์โคต์" โดยนายเชสเตอร์ แพลตต์ เจ้าของร้านเกิดไอเดียใหม่ๆขึ้นมาโดยการนำเอาไอศกรีมมาจำหน่าย ตามปรกติแล้วเชสเตอร์เขาจะตักไอศกรีมขายปรกติธรรมดาๆ ต่อมาวันหนึ่งซึ่งเป็นวันอาทิตย์ นายเชสเตอร์ แพลตต์ ได้รับแรงดลใจอะไรสักอย่างเลยตักไอศกรีมใส่ถ้วยแชมเปญแล้วนำเอาไซปรัสรสเชอรี่มาราดลงบนก้อนไอศกรีมด้วย และประดับด้วยผลเชอรี่แช่อิ่มบนยอด ดูสวยงามน่ารับประทานเป็นอย่างยิ่ง จากกลยุทธ์อันนี้เองสามารถเรียกร้องความสนใจจากลูกค้าขาประจำและขาจรของนายเชสเตอร์ แพลลต์ได้เป็นอย่างดี หลังจากที่เกิดไอเดียอันบรรเจิดจนได้"ไอศกรีมหน้าตากแปลกๆ"ดังกล่าวแล้ว ปรากฏว่าไอศกรีมดังกล่าวก็ขายดีเป็นเท น้ำเทท่า จนนายเชสเตอร์ แพลตต์ จนนับเงินกันแทบไม่ทัน และเขาไม่ลืมที่จะตั้งชื่อให้ ไอศกรีมสูตรดังกล่าวเสียอย่างเลิศหรูว่า "Cherry Sunday" โดยให้เหตุผลง่ายๆว่า เพราะมันก่อกำเนิดขึ้นในวันอาทิตย์นั่นเอง ก็เป็นเหตุผลหนึ่งที่ทำให้เราได้รับรู้รับทราบถึงเส้นทางของ "ไอศกรีมซันเดย์" ว่ามีประวัติความเป็นมาอย่างไร แต่นั่นไม่ได้เป็นตำนานเดียวเท่านั้น เนื่องจากยังมีเรื่องเล่าเกี่ยวกับไอศกรีมซันเดย์อีกหลายตำนานที่เล่าสืบต่อกันมา วันอาทิตย์"ที่มาของSunday เป็นที่น่าสังเกตว่าจากตำนานต่างๆของไอศกรีมซันเดย์มักจะเกี่ยวพันอยู่กับวันอาทิตย์แทบทั้งสิ้น อย่างกรณีของการบอกเล่าของ "นายจอร์จ กิฟฟี่" คนดังแห่งรัฐวิสคอนซิน ระบุว่า เหตุที่มีการเลือกใช้คำว่า Sunday เพราะวันอาทิตย์เป็นวันที่อเมริกันชนชาวคริสต์ส่วนใหญ่จะไปเข้าโบสถ์กันแทบทุกคน ในวันนี้ผู้คนจะแต่งตัวดีๆพอช่วงเวลาหลังจากเสร็จพิธีในโบสถ์แล้ว คริสตศาสนิกชนก็จะชักชวนกันไปหาของหวานรับประทานกัน ดูเหมือนว่าเจ้าไอศกรีมเป็นของหวานชนิดแรกๆที่ถูกเลือก และแม้ว่าไอศกรีมจะมีราคาแพงเท่าไหร่ก็ตามก็ไม่มีใครจะปริปากบ่นเพราะวันแห่งการเข้าโบสถ์นับเป็นวันแห่งมงคลนั่นเอง อย่างไรก็ตามต่อมาคำว่า "Sunday" ได้ถูกเปลี่ยนมาใช้ "Sundae"สาเหตุจากการที่ในหมู่คริสต์ศาสนิกชนโดยเฉพาะผู้ที่เป็นผู้นำในแวดวงศาสนาได้ดาหน้าออกมาโจมตีว่าการนำคำว่า "Sunday"มาใช้ว่าเป็นเรื่องไม่เหมาะสมเป็นอย่างยิ่งเนื่องจากวันอาทิตย์เป็นวันอันศักดิ์สิทธิ์ซึ่งการนำวันดังกล่าวมาตั้งเป็นชื่อของหวานเป็นสิ่งไม่บังควร แต่จะอย่างไรก็แล้วแต่ชื่อของ "ไอศกรีมซันเดย์"แพร่หลายไปทั่วโลกอย่างยากที่จะหยุดยั้งได้แล้ว แม้ว่าชื่อของมันจะถูกเปลี่ยนไปอย่างไรก็ตามที แต่รสชาติความอร่อยของมันได้ฝังรากลึกเข้าไปนั่งในใจคนทั่วโลกเสียแล้ว ประธานาธิบดีจอร์จ วอชิงตัน ถึงกับลงทุนถึง 200 ดอลลาร์ซื้อเครื่องปั่นไอศกรีม ไปทำกินเองในหน้าร้อน คนไทยตื่นเต้นได้ลิ้มรสไอติมสมัยร.5 ส่วนสังคมไทยไอศกรีมได้เข้ามาปรากฏตัวในตั้งแต่รัชสมัยของรัชกาลที่ 4 คาบเกี่ยวถึง รัชกาลที่ 5 โดยเข้ามาทางประเทศสิงคโปร์ในขณะนั้นมีการนำน้ำแข็งเข้ามาก่อนที่จะนำไอศกรีมเข้ามา คนไทยสมัยนั้นมักจะเรียกไอศกรีมกันติดปากว่า "ไอศครีม"หรือ"ไอติม"และนับเป็นของหวานประเภทเดียวที่สร้างความประหลาดให้กับสังคมไทยเป็นอย่างยิ่ง เนื่องจากต้องใช้ความเย็นเป็นตัวสำคัญในการทำ เล่ากันว่าสังคมไทยสมัยรัชกาลที่ 4 มีการจำหน่ายกันเฉพาะน้ำแข็งที่ใส่น้ำหวาน ต่อมาได้พัฒนาเป็นไอติมหลอดเนื่องจากนำน้ำหวานลงไปในหลอดโดยผสมออกเป็นหลายรสชาติ ขณะเดียวกันก็ผสมสีลงไป ทั้งสีแดง สีส้ม สีเขียว สีดำ สีชา ทั้งนี้เพื่อที่จะสร้างความสวยงามแปลกใหม่ และสามารถสร้างแรงดึงดูดลูกค้าตัวน้อยๆได้อีกทางหนึ่ง และที่สำคัญมีการนำกลยุทธ์การตลาดแจกแถมขึ้นมาใช้กันด้วย โดยการนำสีแดงไปทาไว้ที่ไม้ไผ่ซึ่งใช้เสียบไอติมหลอด ใครซื้อได้ไม้เสียบสีแดงก็สามารถที่จะนำไม้ มาแลกไอติมหลอดฟรีๆได้อีก 1 อัน พัฒนามีให้เลือกหลากหลายรสชาติ ไอศครีมถูกพัฒนาไปอ ย่างต่อเนื่องมีการนำไอศกรีมตักใส่แก้ว ใส่ถ้วย แถมด้วยใส่ขนมประเภท ลอดช่อง ขนุน ถั่วลิสง เม็ดบัว ถั่วแดง ลงไปบนหน้าไอศกรีมทั้งนี้เพื่อที่จะเพิ่มพูนรสชาติให้อร่อยมากยิ่งขึ้น ที่สำคัญไม่ลืมที่จะเหยาะนมสดหรือช็อกโกเล็ตลงไปบนก้อนไอศกรีมด้วย นอกจากนี้แล้วยังมีไอศกรีมชนิดตัก ซึ่งส่วนใหญ่จะมีลักษณะเป็นไอศกรีมกะทิรูปลักษณะเป็นแท่งใหญ่ๆแล้วนำมาตัดเป็นชิ้นเล็กเสียบไม้ไว้แบ่งขาย ทั้งนี้มีให้เลือกหลากหลายรสชาติ ทั้งทุเรียน กาแฟ ชา ชอกโกเล็ตและเผือก เป็นต้น ในขณะเดียวกันธุรกิจร้านขายไอศกรีมกลายเป็นธุรกิจขนาดย่อม ซึ่งลูกค้าเป้าหมายส่วนใหญ่ก็ คือ วัยรุ่น ทั้งได้พัฒนาไอศกรีมเป็นไอศกรีมสมุนไพรก่อให้เกิดประโยชน์ในด้านสุขภาพ เนื่องจากแคลอรีต่ำ เพื่อสนองตอบต่อลูกค้าที่ต้องการควบคุม เรื่องอาหาร ปัจจุบันนอกจากมีการทำไอศกรีมไว้รับประทานเองแล้ว ยังมีการทำไอศกรีมในรูปของโรงงานอุตสาหกรรม ผลิตไอศกรีมจำนวนมากๆส่งป้อนตลาด ทั้งนี้มีแบรนด์สินค้าเป็นของตนเอง ซึ่งในตลาดขณะนี้มีอยู่จำนวนมากมายหลายยี่ห้อ บางยี่ห้อแบรนด์สินค้าเป็นที่ชื่นชอบของผู้บริโภคในท้องตลาด เรียกได้ว่าติดตลาดแล้วเป็นการถาวร ทั้งในรสชาติความเอร็ดอร่อย รสหวานเย้ายวนทั้งเด็กและผู้ใหญ่ ความนิยมและคลั่งไคล้ในรสชาติของไอศกรีมเพิ่มขึ้นเรื่อยๆทั้งวัยเด็กวัยผู้ใหญ่ทุกคนก็ไม่เคยปฏิเสธไอศกรีม จนทำให้มีการพัฒนาไอศกรีมทั้งในรูปองรสชาติ รูปแบบ ภาชนะที่ใส่ วัตถุที่จะนำมาปรุงแต่งให้ได้ไอศกรีมเป็นที่เป็นที่ชื่น ชอบของผู้บริโภคนับตั้งแต่ชาเขียว กระเจี๊ยบ มะละกอ ชมพู่ งาดำ นับวันก็มีไอศกรีมหลายรสชาติให้เลือกกันรับประทาน มากมายจนจำกันแทบไม่หวาดไม่ไหวเวลาจะสั่งก็ต้องดูที่เมนูเป็นหลัก จากการของหวานที่ถูกค้นพบด้วยความบังเอิญไม่ว่าจะเป็นตำนานของคนจีนที่นำน้ำนมไปเก็บไว้ใน กองหิมะแล้วกลายเป็นน้ำแข็งรสหอมหวาน หรือตำนานทางยุโรปที่นำนมผสมกับหิมะกลายเป็นไอศกรีมก็ตามที ทำให้เราเห็น เส้นทางเดินของไอศกรีมกันแล้วว่าเป็นมายาวนานเพียงใด จนกระทั่งทุกวันนี้ของหวานประเภทนี้ได้ถูกพัฒนาอย่างไม่หยุดยั้ง และแพร่กระจายเข้าไปเกาะกุมหัวใจของคนได้ทั่วโลก ปัจจุบันเรียกได้ไอศกรีมกลายเป็นของหวานของคนค่อนโลกแล้วก็ว่าได้ ธุรกิจไอศกรีมต้นทุนต่ำกำไรสูง ตลาดไอศกรีมเป็นตลาดที่มีการเจริญเติบโตผู้ผลิตไอศกรีมรายย่อยคิด เป็นจำนวน 78% ของตลาดไอศกรีมทั่วโลกส่วนผู้ผลิตไอศกรีมรายใหญ่ (ยูนิลิเวอร์ , เนสเล่ ,มาร์ส ฯลฯ) คิดเป็นเพียง 22% ของตลาดไอศกรีมทั่วโลกด้วยวิธีการซื้อกิจการบวกกับการตลาด การผลิตและความชำนาญทางด้านการขายที่เหนือกว่าทำให้บริษัทที่ผลิตไอศกรีมต่างๆ สามารถเพิ่มส่วนแบ่ง ตลาดของไอศกรีมทั่วโลกได้ ในทุกวันนี้ตลาดไอศกรีมพร้อมที่จะได้รับการขยายตลาดสูงด้วยระดับการบริโภคที่ต่ำทำให้มีโอกาสในการผลิตสูงในการเพิ่มปริมาณการบริโภคด้วย กลยุทธทางการโฆษณา การส่งเสริมการขายและการวางตลาดของผลิตภัณฑ ์ไอศกรีม แปลกๆ ใหม่ๆการบริโภคไอศกรีมในครัวเรือนมีปริมาณเพิ่มขึ้นอย่างมหาศาลเนื่องจาก ในปัจจุบันนี้อุปกรณ์การแช่แข็งแพร่หลายไปทั่วโลก ตลาดไอศกรีมเป็นตลาดที่มีกำไรสูงราคาต้นทุนของส่วนผสมต่างๆไม่สูงมากนัก(ยกเว้นส่วนผสมที่นำเข้าจากต่างประเทศ) ผู้บริโภคตัดสินใจซื้อไอศกรีมทันที่เพื่อตอบสนองความพอใจส่วนตัว ดังนั้นผู้บริโภค จึงพร้อมจะจ่ายเงินสูงกว่าเพื่อผลิตภัณฑ์ที่เขาต้องการมากกว่า มีความรู้ X วชาญในตลาดไอศกรีม มีแหล่งส่วนผสมต่างๆ
เช่นน้ำตาล,ลูกกวาด,ผลไม้ช๊อกโกแลตและ นมมีความรู้เกี่ยว กับผลิตภัณฑ์นมช๊อกโกแลต ลูกกวาดและอาหารแช่แข็งเป็นอย่างดี มีความสามารถในการสร้างสรรค์ผลิตภัณฑ์ใหม่ ๆ และการผลิตแบบอุตสาหกรรมด้วยมีกลุ่ม ผลิตภัณฑ์ ในแบรนด์และและแนวคิดต่างๆมากมายมีความสามารถและประสบการณ์ทางด้านการ ตลาด และการขาย สำหรับขั้นตอนการผลิตในระดับอุตสาหกรรม 1 การเตรียมส่วนผสม โดยการชั่งส่วนผสมทั้งหมดและผสมให้เข้ากัน 2 การทำให้เป็นเนื้อเดียวกัน และการฆ่าเชื้อ (Homogenize and Pasteurize) ที่อุณหภูมิ 90 องศาเซลเซียส 2-3วินาที 4.การทำให้เย็น (Cooling) โดยการบ่มในห้องเย็นเป็นเวลา 10-12 ชั่วโมง 5.การทำให้แข็งตัว (Freezing) โดยนำมาปั่นในเครื่องปั่นไอศกรีม 6. การบรรจุ (Packaging) ส่วนผสมของไอศกรีม ไขมันนม อาจได้จากสัตว์ หรือ จากพืช ก็ได้ เป็นตัวทำให้เกิดเนื้อสัมผัส รสชาติ และกลิ่นรส ที่ดี milk solid not fat (MSNF)
เป็นตัวช่วยลดจุดเยือกแข็ง ได้แก่ lactose โปรตีน และ เกลือแร่ต่างๆ สารให้ความหวาน (sweetener) มักนิยมใช้ น้ำตาลทรายน้ำ และ อากาศ สารที่ทำให้คงตัว (stabilizer) สารที่ช่วยให้ส่วน ผสมเป็นเนื้อเดียวกัน (emulzifier) สีและกลิ่น (colouring and flavouring) สำหรับการโฮโมจิไนส์ หมายถึง การทำให้เป็นเนื้อเดียวกัน เครื่องมือที่ใช้ในการทำให้เป็นเนื้อเดียวกันนี้เรียกว่า "โฮโมส์เซอร์" (homogenizer) หลักการคือ น้ำนมที่อุ่นให้ร้อนพอเหมาะจะถูกอัดในกระบอกสูบด้วยความดันสูง ผ่านรูตีบของลิ้น ซึ่งมีแรงกดประมาณ 3,000 ปอนด์/ตารางนิ้ว จะทำให้เม็ดไขมันนมซึ่งปกติมีขนาดเส้นผ่าศูนย์กลางระหว่าง 4-6 ไมครอน ถูกย่อยให้มีขนาดเล็กลงเพียง 0.2-2.2 ไมครอน ซึ่งจะทำให้แทรกตัวอยู่ในน้ำนมได้ทนทาน ไม่แยกตัวลอยขึ้นสู่ผิวบนเป็นชั้นครีมได้ง่าย การที่ไขมันกระจายตัวเป็นเนื้อเดียวกับนม ได้ดีเช่นนี้ ไม่เพียงแต่จะทำให้นมอร่อยไปทุกหยดเท่านั้น แต่ยังทำให้คุณสมบัติทางฟิสิกส์บางอย่างเปลี่ยนแปลงไปอีกด้วย ประโยชน์การทำโฮโมจิไนส์ 1. ทำให้เม็ดไขมันเล็กละเอียดลง เพื่อให้ไขมันกระจายตัวแทรกอยู่ในน้ำนมได้ทนทาน ทำให้นมมีรสอร่อยทั่วทุกหยด 2. ป้องกันการเกิดชั้นครีม เม็ดไขมันที่มีขนาดเล็กย่อมแทรกอยู่ในน้ำนมได้นาน จึงไม่แยกตัวลอยขึ้นมารวมตัวเป็นชั้นครีม 3. ทำให้นมย่อยง่ายขึ้น นมที่ผ่านการโฮโมจิไนส์มาแล้ว โปรตีนนมจะมีค่า curd tension ต่ำทำให้ย่อยง่าย เหมาะที่จะใช้ เป็นอาหารทารก 4. ทำนมคืนรูปและผลิตภัณฑ์นมคืนรูปต่าง ๆ นมคืนรูปหรือผลิตภัณฑ์นมคืนรูปต่าง ๆ ที่ต้องผสมไขมันเข้าไปด้วยนั้น ต้อง นำมาโฮโมจิไนส์เพื่อการทำให้เป็นเนื้อเดียวกัน 5. ทำให้ไอศกรีมมีเนื้อนุ่ม การทำไอศกรีมนั้นต้องผสมสารอาหารหลายอย่างเข้าด้วยกัน ถ้าจะให้เป็นเนื้อเดียวกันจริง ๆ จะต้องนำมาโฮโมจีไนส์ด้วย 6. เพื่อให้ถูกต้องตามกฎหมายในขบวนการผลิต การผลิตนมสเตอริไลส์และนม ยู เอช ที นั้นกฎหมายกำหนดไว้ว่าต้องทำให้เนื้อเดียวกัน ดังนั้นการโฮโมจิไนส์จึงมีความจำเป็น วิธีการโฮโมจิไนส์ 1. นมต้องผ่านการกรองมาแล้วอย่างดี โดยเฉพาะอย่างยิ่งนมต้องปราศจากผงของกรวดหรือทราย เพราะของแข็งเหล่านี้เป็นอันตรายต่อ กระบอกสูบมาก 2. นมต้องร้อนอุณหภูมิไม่ต่ำกว่า ๑๒๐ องศา ฟ. (๔๘.๘ องศา ซ.) 3. นมหรือผลิตภัณฑ์ที่จะนำมาโฮโมจิไนส์นั้นจะต้องอยู่ในสภาพของเหลวที่ไหลได้ คือต้องไม่ข้นจนเกินไป 4. นมหรือผลิตภัณฑ์ที่จะนำมาโฮโมจิไนส์นั้น จะต้องมีเครื่องปั๊มส่งเข้าเครื่องโฮโมจิไนส์เซอร์ มิฉะนั้นจะต้องอยู่ระดับสูงกว่าลิ้นเข้า (inlet) ของเครื่องโฮโม จิไนส์เซอร์ ระดับความสูงดังกล่าวย่อมมีความสัมพันธ์กับอุณหภูมิดังต่อไปนี้คือ อุณหภูมิ 170 องศา ฟ. (76.6องศา ซ.) ต้องอยู่สูงจากลิ้นเข้า อย่างน้อย 1 ฟุต อุณหภูมิ 180 องศา ฟ. (82.2 องศา ซ.) ต้องอยู่สูงจากลิ้นเข้า อย่างน้อย 3 ฟุต อุณหภูมิ 190 องศา ฟ. (87.7 องศา ซ.) ต้องอยู่สูงจาก ลิ้นเข้า อย่างน้อย 5 ฟุต กระบวนการทำไอศกรีม การทำไอศกรีมไม่ได้ยุ่งยากแต่อย่างใด บางคนอาจจะทำไว้รับประทานเองหรือจะทำไว้ขายก็สุดแท้แล้วแต่จุดประสงค์ของแต่ละคน แต่ถ้าอยากได้ไอศกรีมรสชาติใหม่ๆ ก็สามารถที่จะลองเติมข้าวโพดต้ม เม็ดแมงลัก ลอดช่อง มะพร้าวอ่อนเพิ่มลงไปขณะที่ไอศกรีมกำลังหนืดๆ อยู่ในเครื่องปั่นไอศกรีมก็ได้ เพราะจะทำให้ได้ไอศกรีมรสชาติใหม่ๆไว้รับประทานกัน หลักการทำไอศกรีมพอแบ่งออกได้เป็น 2 หลักการ อันประกอบด้วย 1.การแช่แข็งโดยใช้ช่องแช่แข็งของตู้เย็น ปัจจุบันนิยมบรรจุลงในกล่องพลาสติก จำหน่ายตามห้างสรรพสินค้า 2.การปั่นด้วยมือหรือเครื่องปั่น วิธีนี้นิยมใช้มานานแล้ว เนื่องจากใช้ทุนน้อยและเนื้อไอศกรีมเนียนนุ่มมีความแข็งแน่นมากกว่าวิธีแช่แข็ง ถ้าปั่นด้วยมอเตอร์ที่มีความเร็วพอเหมาะ จะทำให้ฟองอากาศถูกอัดแน่น และเกร็ดของไอศกรีมละเอียดยิบ การผลิตไอศกรีม ไม่ว่าจะผลิตด้วยระบบโรงงานหรือปั่นด้วยมือ มีสูตรที่พลิกแพลงเปลี่ยนแปลงได้ ต่างกันตรงที่ระบบโรงงาน อาจใช้ทุนสูงและ คนงานมาก การขายจึงขยายขอบข่ายกว้าง อาจเป็นการผลิตด้วยวิธีแช่แข็ง แล้ววางจำหน่ายตามห้างสรรพสินค้า และร้านค้าที่มีตู้แช่ ส่วนการปั่น ด้วยมือ เป็นอุตสาหกรรมในครัวเรือนที่ขายเฉพาะ ที่ขายในท้องถิ่นและวงไม่กว้างนัก สูตรการทำไอศกรีมที่จะกล่าวต่อไปท่านจะปั่นก็ได้ หรือใส่ภาชนะแช่แข็งก็ได้ เป็นไอศครีมชนิดใช้ช้อนตักไม่ใช่ไอศครีมแท่ง
วันจันทร์ที่ 26 พฤษภาคม พ.ศ. 2551
วันเสาร์ที่ 17 พฤษภาคม พ.ศ. 2551
Cake
A selection of cakes.Cake is a form of food that is usually sweet and often baked. Cakes normally combine some kind of flour, a sweetening agent (commonly sugar), a binding agent (generally egg, though gluten or starch are often used by vegetarians and vegans), fats (usually butter, shortening, or margarine, although a fruit purée such as applesauce is sometimes substituted to avoid using fat), a liquid (milk, water or fruit juice), flavors and some form of leavening agent (such as yeast or baking powder), though many cakes lack these ingredients and instead rely on air bubbles in the dough to expand and cause the cake to rise. Cake is often frosted with buttercream or marzipan, and finished with piped borders and crystallized fruit.
Cake is often the dessert of choice for meals at ceremonial occasions, particularly weddings, anniversaries and birthdays. There are literally millions of cake recipes (some are bread-like and some rich and elaborate) and many are centuries old. Cake making is no longer a complicated procedure; while at one time considerable labor went into cake making (particularly the whisking of egg foams), baking equipment and directions have been so perfected and simplified that even the amateur cook may easily become an expert baker.
Contents
Varieties of cake
A decorated birthday cake.
German chocolate cake.
Cakes are broadly divided into several categories, based primarily on ingredients and cooking techniques.
Yeast cakes are the oldest, and are very similar to yeast breads. Such cakes are often very traditional in form, and include such pastries as babka and stollen.
Cheesecakes use mostly some form of cheese (often cream cheese, mascarpone, ricotta or the like), and have very little to no flour component (though it sometimes appears in the form of a (often sweetened) crust). Cheesecakes are also very old, with evidence of honey-sweetened cakes dating back to ancient Greece.
Sponge cakes are thought to be the first of the non-yeast-based cakes and rely primarily on trapped air in a protein matrix (generally of beaten eggs) to provide leavening, sometimes with a bit of baking powder or other chemical leaven added as insurance. Such cakes include the Italian/Jewish pan di Spagna and the French Génoise.
Butter cakes, including the pound cake and devil's food cake, rely on the combination of butter, eggs, and sometimes baking powder to provide both lift and a moist texture.
Beyond these classifications, cakes can be classified based on their appropriate accompaniment (such as coffee cake), contents (e.g. fruitcake or flourless chocolate cake), or occasion (wedding cake, birthday cake, or Passover plava, a type of Jewish sponge cake sometimes made with matzo meal).
Cakes may be small and intended for individual consumption (for example madeleines and cupcakes). Larger cakes may be made with the intention of being sliced and served as part of a meal or social function. The cutting of a wedding cake constitutes a social ceremony in some cultures. The Ancient Roman marriage ritual of confarreatio originated in the sharing of a cake.
Particular types of cake may be associated with particular festivals, such as stollen (at Christmas), babka and simnel cake (at Easter), or mooncake.
Some varieties of cake are widely available in the form of cake mixes, wherein some of the ingredients (usually flour, sugar, flavoring, baking powder, and sometimes some form of fat) are premixed, and the cook needs add only a few extra ingredients, usually eggs, water, and sometimes vegetable oil or butter. Such mixes are available under a number of brand names, including Betty Crocker, Duncan Hines, and Pillsbury; while the diversity of represented styles is limited, cake mixes do provide an easy and readily available homemade option for cooks who are not accomplished bakers.
Cake flour
Special cake flour with a high starch:gluten ratio is made from fine-textured, soft, low-protein wheat. It is strongly bleached, and compared to all-purpose flour, cake flour tends to result in cakes with a lighter, less dense texture Therefore, it is frequently specified or preferred in cakes meant to be soft, light, and or bright white, such as angel cake. However, cake flour is generally not considered mandatory for good results, and its effect on the cake's texture can readily be simulated by adding corn starch and/or baking soda to all-purpose flour Some recipes explicitly specify or permit all-purpose flour otably where a firmer or denser cake texture is desired.
Cake decorating
A cake decorated with "chocolate plastic," a fondant rose and chocolate leaves.
A finished cake is often enhanced by covering it with icing, or frosting, and toppings such as sprinkles, which are also known as "jimmies" in certain parts of the United States and "hundreds and thousands" in the United Kingdom. Frosting is usually made from powdered (icing) sugar, sometimes a fat of some sort, milk or cream, and often flavorings such as vanilla extract or cocoa powder. Some decorators use a rolled fondant icing. Commercial bakeries tend to use lard for the fat, and often whip the lard to introduce air bubbles. This makes the icing light and spreadable. Home bakers either use lard, butter, margarine or some combination thereof. Sprinkles are small firm pieces of sugar and oils that are colored with food coloring. In the late 20th century, new cake decorating products became available to the public. These include several specialized sprinkles and even methods to print pictures and transfer the image onto a cake.
Special tools are needed for more complex cake decorating, such as piping bags or syringes, and various piping tips. To use a piping bag or syringe, a piping tip is attached to the bag or syringe using a coupler. The bag or syringe is partially filled with icing which is sometimes colored. Using different piping tips and various techniques, a cake decorator can make many different designs. Basic decorating tips include open star, closed star, basketweave, round, drop flower, leaf, multi, petal, and specialty tips. Royal icing, marzipan (or a less sweet version, known as almond paste), fondant icing (also known as sugarpaste) and buttercream are used as covering icings and to create decorations. Floral sugarcraft or wired sugar flowers are an important part of cake decoration. Cakes for special occasions, such as wedding cakes, are traditionally rich fruit cakes or occasionally Madeira cakes (also known as whisked or fatless sponge), that are covered with marzipan and either iced using royal icing or sugarpaste. They are finished with piped borders (made with royal icing) and adorned with a piped message, wired sugar flowers, hand-formed fondant flowers, marzipan fruit, piped flowers, or crystallized fruits or flowers such as grapes or violets. Some famous kits are the Betty Crocker kits.
A selection of cakes.Cake is a form of food that is usually sweet and often baked. Cakes normally combine some kind of flour, a sweetening agent (commonly sugar), a binding agent (generally egg, though gluten or starch are often used by vegetarians and vegans), fats (usually butter, shortening, or margarine, although a fruit purée such as applesauce is sometimes substituted to avoid using fat), a liquid (milk, water or fruit juice), flavors and some form of leavening agent (such as yeast or baking powder), though many cakes lack these ingredients and instead rely on air bubbles in the dough to expand and cause the cake to rise. Cake is often frosted with buttercream or marzipan, and finished with piped borders and crystallized fruit.
Cake is often the dessert of choice for meals at ceremonial occasions, particularly weddings, anniversaries and birthdays. There are literally millions of cake recipes (some are bread-like and some rich and elaborate) and many are centuries old. Cake making is no longer a complicated procedure; while at one time considerable labor went into cake making (particularly the whisking of egg foams), baking equipment and directions have been so perfected and simplified that even the amateur cook may easily become an expert baker.
Contents
Varieties of cake
A decorated birthday cake.
German chocolate cake.
Cakes are broadly divided into several categories, based primarily on ingredients and cooking techniques.
Yeast cakes are the oldest, and are very similar to yeast breads. Such cakes are often very traditional in form, and include such pastries as babka and stollen.
Cheesecakes use mostly some form of cheese (often cream cheese, mascarpone, ricotta or the like), and have very little to no flour component (though it sometimes appears in the form of a (often sweetened) crust). Cheesecakes are also very old, with evidence of honey-sweetened cakes dating back to ancient Greece.
Sponge cakes are thought to be the first of the non-yeast-based cakes and rely primarily on trapped air in a protein matrix (generally of beaten eggs) to provide leavening, sometimes with a bit of baking powder or other chemical leaven added as insurance. Such cakes include the Italian/Jewish pan di Spagna and the French Génoise.
Butter cakes, including the pound cake and devil's food cake, rely on the combination of butter, eggs, and sometimes baking powder to provide both lift and a moist texture.
Beyond these classifications, cakes can be classified based on their appropriate accompaniment (such as coffee cake), contents (e.g. fruitcake or flourless chocolate cake), or occasion (wedding cake, birthday cake, or Passover plava, a type of Jewish sponge cake sometimes made with matzo meal).
Cakes may be small and intended for individual consumption (for example madeleines and cupcakes). Larger cakes may be made with the intention of being sliced and served as part of a meal or social function. The cutting of a wedding cake constitutes a social ceremony in some cultures. The Ancient Roman marriage ritual of confarreatio originated in the sharing of a cake.
Particular types of cake may be associated with particular festivals, such as stollen (at Christmas), babka and simnel cake (at Easter), or mooncake.
Some varieties of cake are widely available in the form of cake mixes, wherein some of the ingredients (usually flour, sugar, flavoring, baking powder, and sometimes some form of fat) are premixed, and the cook needs add only a few extra ingredients, usually eggs, water, and sometimes vegetable oil or butter. Such mixes are available under a number of brand names, including Betty Crocker, Duncan Hines, and Pillsbury; while the diversity of represented styles is limited, cake mixes do provide an easy and readily available homemade option for cooks who are not accomplished bakers.
Cake flour
Special cake flour with a high starch:gluten ratio is made from fine-textured, soft, low-protein wheat. It is strongly bleached, and compared to all-purpose flour, cake flour tends to result in cakes with a lighter, less dense texture Therefore, it is frequently specified or preferred in cakes meant to be soft, light, and or bright white, such as angel cake. However, cake flour is generally not considered mandatory for good results, and its effect on the cake's texture can readily be simulated by adding corn starch and/or baking soda to all-purpose flour Some recipes explicitly specify or permit all-purpose flour otably where a firmer or denser cake texture is desired.
Cake decorating
A cake decorated with "chocolate plastic," a fondant rose and chocolate leaves.
A finished cake is often enhanced by covering it with icing, or frosting, and toppings such as sprinkles, which are also known as "jimmies" in certain parts of the United States and "hundreds and thousands" in the United Kingdom. Frosting is usually made from powdered (icing) sugar, sometimes a fat of some sort, milk or cream, and often flavorings such as vanilla extract or cocoa powder. Some decorators use a rolled fondant icing. Commercial bakeries tend to use lard for the fat, and often whip the lard to introduce air bubbles. This makes the icing light and spreadable. Home bakers either use lard, butter, margarine or some combination thereof. Sprinkles are small firm pieces of sugar and oils that are colored with food coloring. In the late 20th century, new cake decorating products became available to the public. These include several specialized sprinkles and even methods to print pictures and transfer the image onto a cake.
Special tools are needed for more complex cake decorating, such as piping bags or syringes, and various piping tips. To use a piping bag or syringe, a piping tip is attached to the bag or syringe using a coupler. The bag or syringe is partially filled with icing which is sometimes colored. Using different piping tips and various techniques, a cake decorator can make many different designs. Basic decorating tips include open star, closed star, basketweave, round, drop flower, leaf, multi, petal, and specialty tips. Royal icing, marzipan (or a less sweet version, known as almond paste), fondant icing (also known as sugarpaste) and buttercream are used as covering icings and to create decorations. Floral sugarcraft or wired sugar flowers are an important part of cake decoration. Cakes for special occasions, such as wedding cakes, are traditionally rich fruit cakes or occasionally Madeira cakes (also known as whisked or fatless sponge), that are covered with marzipan and either iced using royal icing or sugarpaste. They are finished with piped borders (made with royal icing) and adorned with a piped message, wired sugar flowers, hand-formed fondant flowers, marzipan fruit, piped flowers, or crystallized fruits or flowers such as grapes or violets. Some famous kits are the Betty Crocker kits.
วันเสาร์ที่ 23 กุมภาพันธ์ พ.ศ. 2551
A rose is a flowering shrub of the genus Rosa, and the flower of this shrub.[1][2] There are more than a hundred species of wild roses, all from the northern hemisphere and mostly from temperate regions. The species form a group of generally prickly shrubs or climbers, and sometimes trailing plants, reaching 2–5 metres tall, occasionally reaching as high as 20 metres by climbing over other plants.[3]
The name originates from Latin rosa, borrowed through Oscan from colonial Greek in southern Italy: rhodon (Aeolic form: wrodon), from Aramaic wurrdā, from Assyrian wurtinnu, from Old Iranian *warda (cf. Armenian vard, Avestan warda, Sogdian ward, Parthian wâr).[4][5][6]
Rose hips are sometimes eaten, mainly for their vitamin C content. They are usually pressed and filtered to make rose hip syrup, as the fine hairs surrounding the seeds are unpleasant to eat (resembling itching powder). They can also be used to make herbal tea, jam, jelly and marmalade. A rose that has aged or gone rotten may not be particularly fragrant, but the rose's basic chemistry prevents it from producing a pungent odor of any kind. Notably, when balled and mashed together the fragrance of the rose is enhanced.[7] The fragrance of particularly large balls of mashed roses is enhanced even further. Rose hips are also used to produce an oil used in skin products. Rose shrubs are often used by homeowners and landscape architects for home security purposes. The sharp thorns of many rose species deter unauthorized persons from entering private properties, and may prevent break-ins if planted under windows and near drainpipes. The aesthetic characteristics of rose shrubs, in conjunction with their home security qualities, makes them a considerable alternative to artificial fences and walls.[1][2]
Contents[hide]
1 Botany
1.1 Species
2 Pests and diseases
3 Cultivation
4 Pruning
4.1 Deadheading
5 History
6 Culture
6.1 Symbolism
6.2 In art
6.3 Quotes
7 Perfume
8 Notable rose growers
8.1 Rose Capital of America
8.2 Individuals
9 Notes
10 See also
Botany
Rosa canina hips
The leaves of most species are 5–15 centimetres long, pinnate, with (3–) 5–9 (–13) leaflets and basal stipules; the leaflets usually have a serrated margin, and often a few small prickles on the underside of the stem. The vast majority of roses are deciduous, but a few (particularly in Southeast Asia) are evergreen or nearly so.
The flowers of most species roses have five petals, with the exception of Rosa sericea, which usually has only four. Each petal is divided into two distinct lobes and is usually white or pink, though in a few species yellow or red. Beneath the petals are five sepals (or in the case of some Rosa sericea, four). These may be long enough to be visible when viewed from above and appear as green points alternating with the rounded petals. The ovary is inferior, developing below the petals and sepals.
The aggregate fruit of the rose is a berry-like structure called a rose hip. Rose species that produce open-faced flowers are attractive to pollinating bees and other insects, thus more apt to produce hips. Many of the domestic cultivars are so tightly petalled that they do not provide access for pollination. The hips of most species are red, but a few (e.g. Rosa pimpinellifolia) have dark purple to black hips. Each hip comprises an outer fleshy layer, the hypanthium, which contains 5–160 "seeds" (technically dry single-seeded fruits called achenes) embedded in a matrix of fine, but stiff, hairs. Rose hips of some species, especially the Dog Rose (Rosa canina) and Rugosa Rose (Rosa rugosa), are very rich in vitamin C, among the richest sources of any plant. The hips are eaten by fruit-eating birds such as thrushes and waxwings, which then disperse the seeds in their droppings. Some birds, particularly finches, also eat the seeds.
While the sharp objects along a rose stem are commonly called "thorns", they are actually prickles — outgrowths of the epidermis (the outer layer of tissue of the stem). True thorns, as produced by e.g. Citrus or Pyracantha, are modified stems, which always originate at a node and which have nodes and internodes along the length of the thorn itself. Rose prickles are typically sickle-shaped hooks, which aid the rose in hanging onto other vegetation when growing over it. Some species such as Rosa rugosa and R. pimpinellifolia have densely packed straight spines, probably an adaptation to reduce browsing by animals, but also possibly an adaptation to trap wind-blown sand and so reduce erosion and protect their roots (both of these species grow naturally on coastal sand dunes). Despite the presence of prickles, roses are frequently browsed by deer. A few species of roses only have vestigial prickles that have no points.
Species
Further information: List of Rosa species
Rosa multiflora
Some representative rose species
Rosa canina — Dog Rose, Briar Bush
Rosa chinensis — China Rose
Rosa dumalis — Glaucous Dog Rose
Rosa gallica — Gallic Rose, French Rose
Rosa gigantea (syn. R. x odorata gigantea)
Rosa glauca (syn. R. rubrifolia) — Redleaf Rose
Rosa laevigata (syn. R. sinica) — Cherokee Rose, Camellia Rose, Mardan Rose
Rosa multiflora — Multiflora Rose
Rosa persica (syn. Hulthemia persica, R. simplicifolia)
Rosa roxburghii — Chestnut Rose, Burr Rose
Rosa rubiginosa (syn. R. eglanteria) — Eglantine, Sweet Brier
Rosa rugosa — Rugosa Rose, Japanese Rose
Rosa spinosissima — Scotch Rose
Rosa stellata — Gooseberry Rose, Sacramento Rose
Rosa virginiana (syn. R. lucida) — Virginia Rose
Pests and diseases
Main articles: Pests and diseases of roses and List of rose diseases
Roses are subject to several diseases. The most serious is rose rust (Phragmidium mucronatum), a species of rust fungus, which can defoliate the plant. More common, though less debilitating, are rose black spot, caused by the fungus Diplocarpon rosae, which makes circular black spots on the leaves in summer, and powdery mildew, caused by Sphaerotheca pannosa. Fungal diseases are best solved by a preventative fungicidal spray program rather than by trying to cure an infection after it is visible. After the disease is visible, its spread can be minimized through pruning and use of fungicides although actual infection cannot be reversed. Some rose varieties are considerably less susceptible than others to fungal disease.
The main insect pest affecting roses is the aphid (greenfly), which sucks the sap and weakens the plant. Ladybirds are a predator of aphids and should be encouraged in the rose garden. Spraying with insecticide is often recommended but should be done with care to minimize loss of beneficial insects. Roses are also used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species; see list of Lepidoptera that feed on roses.
Cultivation
See also: Rose cultivars named after celebrities
Rose-picking in the Rose Valley near the town of Kazanlak in Bulgaria, 1870s, engraving by Austro-Hungarian traveller F. Kanitz
Rosa x alba 'Alba Semiplena', an Alba rose
Rosa 'Maiden's Blush', an Alba rose
'Rosa 'Zéphirine Drouhin', a Bourbon rose
Rosa 'Cajun Sunrise', a modern Hybrid Tea rose
Rosa 'Borussia', a modern Floribunda rose
Rosa 'Climbing Souvenir de la Malmaison', a Bourbon rose
Roses are one of the most popular garden shrubs, as well as the most popular and commonly sold florists' flowers. In addition to their great economic importance as a florists crop, roses are also of great value to the perfume industry.
Many thousands of rose hybrids and cultivars have been bred and selected for garden use, mostly double-flowered with many or all of the stamens mutated into additional petals. As long ago as 1840 a collection numbering over one thousand different cultivars, varieties and species was possible when a rosarium was planted by Loddiges nursery for Abney Park Cemetery, an early Victorian garden cemetery and arboretum in England. Twentieth-century rose breeders generally emphasized size and color, producing large, attractive blooms with little or no scent. Many wild and "old-fashioned" roses, by contrast, have a strong sweet scent.
Roses thrive in temperate climates, though certain species and cultivars can flourish in sub-tropical and even tropical climates, especially when grafted onto appropriate rootstock.
There is no single system of classification for garden roses. In general, however, roses are placed in one of three main groups:
Wild Roses — The wild roses includes the species listed above and some of their hybrids.
Old Garden Roses — Most Old Garden Roses are classified into one of the following groups. In general, Old Garden Roses of European or Mediterranean origin are once-blooming shrubs, with notably fragrant, double-flowered blooms primarily in shades of white, pink and red. The shrubs' foliage tends to be highly disease-resistant, and they generally bloom only on two-year-old canes.
Alba — Literally "white roses", derived from R. arvensis and the closely allied R. alba. These are some of the oldest garden roses, probably brought to Great Britain by the Romans. The shrubs flower once yearly in the spring with blossoms of white or pale pink. The shrubs frequently feature gray-green foliage and a climbing habit of growth . Examples: 'Alba Semiplena', 'White Rose of York'.
Gallica — The gallica roses have been developed from R. gallica, which is a native of central and southern Europe. They flower once in the summer over low shrubs rarely over 4' tall. Unlike most other once-blooming Old Garden Roses, the gallica class includes shades of red, maroon and deep purplish crimson. Examples: 'Cardinal de Richelieu', 'Charles de Mills', 'Rosa Mundi' (R. gallica versicolor).
Damask — Robert de Brie is given credit for bringing them from Persia to Europe sometime between 1254 and 1276, although there is evidence from ancient Roman frescoes that at least one damask rose, the Autumn Damask, existed in Europe for hundreds of years prior. Summer damasks (crosses between gallica roses and R. phoenicea) bloom once in summer. Autumn damasks (Gallicas crossed with R. moschata) bloom again later, in the autumn. Shrubs tend to have rangy to sprawly growth habits and vicious thorns. The flowers typically have a more loose petal formation than gallicas, as well as a stronger, tangy fragrance. Examples: 'Ispahan', 'Madame Hardy'.
Centifolia (or Provence) — These roses, raised in the seventeenth century in the Netherlands, are named for their "one hundred" petals; they are often called "cabbage" roses due to the globular shape of the flowers. The result of damask roses crossed with albas, the centifolias are all once-flowering. As a class, they are notable for their inclination to produce mutations of various sizes and forms, including moss roses and some of the first miniature roses (see below) . Examples: 'Centifolia', 'Paul Ricault'.
Moss — Mutations of primarily centifolia roses (or sometimes damasks), these have a mossy excrescence on the stems and sepals that often emits a pleasant woodsy or balsam scent when rubbed. Moss roses are cherised for this unique trait, but as a group they have contributed nothing to the development of new rose classifications. Moss roses with centifolia background are once-flowering; some moss roses exhibit repeat-blooming, indicative of Autumn Damask parentage. Example: 'Common Moss' (centifolia-moss), 'Alfred de Dalmas' (Autumn Damask moss).
China — The China roses were grown in East Asia for thousands of years and finally reached Western Europe in the late 1700s. Compared to the aforementioned European rose classes, the China roses had smaller, less fragrant, more poorly formed blooms carried over twiggier, more cold-sensitive shrubs. Yet they possessed the amazing ability to bloom repeatedly throughout the summer and into late autumn, unlike their European counterparts. This made them highly desirable for hybridization purposes in the early 1800s. The flowers of China roses were also notable for their tendency to "suntan," or darken over time — unlike the blooms of European roses, which tended to fade after opening. Four China roses ('Slater's Crimson China', 1792; 'Parsons' Pink China', 1793; 'Hume's Blush China', 1809; and 'Parks' Yellow Tea Scented China', 1824) were brought to Europe in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. This brought about the creation of the first classes of repeat-flowering Old Garden Roses, and later the Modern Garden Roses. Examples: 'Old Blush China', 'Mutabilis'.
Portland — The Portland roses represent the first group of crosses between China roses and European roses, specifically gallicas and damasks. They were named after the Duchess of Portland who received (from Italy in 1800) a rose then known as R. paestana or 'Scarlet Four Seasons' Rose' (now known simply as 'The Portland Rose'). The whole class of Portland roses was thence developed from that one rose. The first repeat-flowering class of rose with fancy European-style blossoms, they are mostly descended from hybrids between damask and China roses. The plants tend to be fairly short and shrubby, with proportionately short flower stalks. Example: 'James Veitch', 'Rose de Rescht', 'Comte de Chambourd'.
Bourbon — Bourbons originated on l'Île de Bourbon (now called Réunion) off the coast of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. They are most likely the result of a cross between the Autumn Damask and the 'Old Blush' China rose, both of which were frequently used as hedging materials on the island. They flower repeatedly over vigorous, frequently semi-climbing shrubs with glossy foliage and purple-tinted canes. They were first Introduced in France in 1823. Examples: 'Louise Odier', 'Mme. Pierre Oger', 'Zéphirine Drouhin'.
Noisette — The first Noisette rose was raised as a hybrid seedling by a South Carolina rice planter named John Champneys. Its parents were the China Rose 'Parson's Pink' and the autumn-flowering musk rose (Rosa moschata), resulting in a vigorous climbing rose producing huge clusters of small pink flowers from spring to fall. Champneys sent seedlings of his rose (called 'Champneys' Pink Cluster') to his gardening friend, Philippe Noisette, who in turn sent plants to his brother Louis in Paris, who then introduced 'Blush Noisette' in 1817. The first Noisettes were small-blossomed, fairly winter-hardy climbers, but later infusions of Tea rose genes created a Tea-Noisette subclass with larger flowers, smaller clusters, and considerably reduced winter hardiness. Examples: 'Blush Noisette', 'Mme. Alfred Carriere' (Noisette), 'Marechal Niel' (Tea-Noisette). (See French and German articles on Noisette roses)
Tea — The result of crossing two of the original China roses ('Hume's Blush China' and 'Parks' Yellow Tea Scented China') with various Bourbons and Noisette roses, tea roses are considerably more tender than other Old Garden Roses (due to cold-tender Rosa gigantea in the ancestry of the 'Parks' Yellow' rose). The teas are repeat-flowering roses, named for their fragrance being reminiscent of Chinese black tea (although this is not always the case). The color range includes pastel shades of white, pink and yellow, and the petals tend to roll back at the edges, producing a petal with a pointed tip. The individual flowers of many cultivars are semi-pendent and nodding, due to weak flower stalks. Examples: 'Lady Hillingdon', 'Maman Cochet'.
Hybrid Perpetual — The dominant class of roses in Victorian England, they first emerged in 1838 and were derived to a great extent from the Bourbons. They became the most popular garden and florist roses of northern Europe at the time, as the tender tea roses would not thrive in cold climates. The "perpetual" in the name hints at repeat-flowering, but many varieties of this class had poor reflowering habits; the tendency was for a massive spring bloom, followed by either scattered summer flowering, a smaller autumn burst, or sometimes nothing at all until next spring. Due to a limited color palette (white, pink, red) and lack of reliable repeat-bloom, the hybrid perpetuals were ultimately overshadowed by their own descendants, the Hybrid Teas. Examples: 'Ferdinand Pichard', 'Reine Des Violettes', 'Paul Neyron'.
Hybrid Musk - This group was primarily developed by Rev. Joseph Pemberton, a British rosarian, in the first decades of the 20th century, based upon 'Aglaia', a 1896 cross by Peter Lambert. A seedling of this rose, 'Trier', is considered to the be foundation of the class. The genetics of the class are somewhat obscure, as some of the parents are unknown. Rose multiflora, however, is known to be one parent, and R. moschata (the musk rose) also figures in its heritage, though it is considered to be less important than the name would suggest. Hybrid musks are disease-resistant, remontant and generally cluster-flowered, with a strong, characteristic "musk" scent.[3][4] Examples include 'Buff Beauty' and 'Penelope'.
Bermuda "Mystery" Roses — A group of several dozen "found" roses that have been grown in Bermuda for at least a century. The roses have significant value and interest for those growing roses in tropical and semi-tropical regions, since they are highly resistant to both nematode damage and the fungal diseases that plague rose culture in hot, humid areas, and capable of blooming in hot and humid weather. Most of these roses are likely Old Garden Rose cultivars that have otherwise dropped out of cultivation, or sports thereof. They are "mystery roses" because their "proper" historical names have been lost. Tradition dictates that they are named after the owner of the garden where they were rediscovered.
Miscellaneous — There are also a few smaller classes (such as Scots, Sweet Brier) and some climbing classes of old roses (including Ayrshire, Climbing China, Laevigata, Sempervirens, Boursault, Climbing Tea, and Climbing Bourbon). Those classes with both climbing and shrub forms are often grouped together.
Modern Garden Roses — Classification of modern roses can be quite confusing because many modern roses have old garden roses in their ancestry and their form varies so much. The classifications tend to be by growth and flowering characteristics, such as "large-flowered shrub", "recurrent, large-flowered shrub", "cluster-flowered", "rambler recurrent", or "ground-cover non-recurrent". The following includes the most notable and popular classifications of Modern Garden Roses:
Hybrid Tea — The favourite rose for much of the history of modern roses, hybrid teas were initially created by hybridizing Hybrid Perpetuals with Tea roses in the late 1800s. 'La France,' created in 1867, is universally acknowledged as the first indication of a new class of roses. Hybrid teas exhibit traits midway between both parents: hardier than the teas but less hardy than the hybrid perpetuals, and more everblooming than the hybrid perpetuals but less so than the teas. The flowers are well-formed with large, high-centered buds, and each flowering stem typically terminates in a single shapely bloom. The shrubs tend to be stiffly upright and sparsely foliaged, which today is often seen as a liability in the landscape. The hybrid tea class is important in being the first class of roses to include genes from the old Austrian brier rose (Rosa foetida). This resulted in an entirely new color range for roses: shades of deep yellow, apricot, copper, orange, true scarlet, yellow bicolors, lavender, gray, and even brown were now possible. The new color range did much to skyrocket hybrid tea popularity in the 20th century, but these colors came at a price: Rosa foetida also passed on a tendency toward disease-susceptibility, scentless blooms, and an intolerance of pruning, to its descendants. Hybrid teas became the single most popular class of garden rose of the 20th century; today, their reputation as being more high maintenance than many other rose classes has led to a decline in hybrid tea popularity among gardeners and landscapers in favor of lower-maintenance "landscape" roses. The hybrid tea remains the standard rose of the floral industry, however, and is still favoured in small gardens in formal situations. Examples: 'Peace', 'Mr. Lincoln,' 'Double Delight.'
Polyantha — Literally "many-flowered" roses, from the Greek "poly" (many) and "anthos" (flower). Originally derived from crosses between two East Asian species (Rosa chinensis and R. multiflora), polyanthas first appeared in France in the late 1800s alongside the hybrid teas. They featured short plants — some compact, others spreading in habit — with tiny blooms (1" in diameter on average) carried in large sprays, in the typical rose colors of white, pink and red. Their main claim to fame was their prolific bloom: From spring to fall, a healthy polyantha shrub might be literally covered in flowers, creating a strong color impact in the landscape. Polyantha roses are still regarded as low-maintenance, disease-resistant garden roses today, and remain popular for that reason. Examples: 'Cecile Brunner', 'The Fairy', 'Red Fairy'.
Floribunda — Rose breeders quickly saw the value in crossing polyanthas with hybrid teas, to create roses with that bloomed with the polyantha profusion, but with hybrid tea floral beauty and color range. In 1909, the first polyantha/hybrid tea cross, 'Gruss an Aachen,' was created, with characteristics midway between both parent classes. As the larger, more shapely flowers and hybrid-tea-like growth habit separated these new roses from polyanthas and hybrid teas alike, a new class was created and named Floribunda, Latin for "many-flowering." Typical floribundas feature stiff shrubs, smaller and bushier than the average hybrid tea but less dense and sprawling than the average polyantha. The flowers are often smaller than hybrid teas but are carried in large sprays, giving a better floral effect in the garden. Floribundas are found in all hybrid tea colors and with the classic hybrid tea-shaped blossom, sometimes differing from hybrid teas only in their cluster-flowering habit. Today they are still used in large bedding schemes in public parks and similar spaces. Examples: 'Dainty Maid', 'Iceberg', 'Tuscan Sun'.
Grandiflora — Grandifloras (Latin for "large-flowered") were the class of roses created in the mid 1900s to designate back-crosses between hybrid teas and floribundas that fit neither category — specifically, the 'Queen Elizabeth' rose, which was introduced in 1954[5]. Grandiflora shrubs are typically larger than either hybrid teas or floribundas, and feature hybrid tea-style flowers borne in small clusters of three to five, similar to a floribunda. Grandifloras maintained some popularity from about the 1950s to the 1980s but today they are much less popular than either the hybrid teas or the floribundas. Examples: 'Queen Elizabeth', 'Comanche,' 'Montezuma'.
Meillandine (a miniature rose) in a terra cotta flowerpot
Miniature — All of the classes of Old Garden Roses — gallicas, centifolias, etc. — had corresponding miniature forms, although these were once-flowering just as their larger forms were. As with the standard-sized varieties, miniature Old Garden roses were crossed with repeat-blooming Asian species to produce everblooming miniature roses. Today, miniature roses are represented by twiggy, repeat-flowering shrubs ranging from 6" to 36" in height, with most falling in the 12"–24" height range. Blooms come in all the hybrid tea colors; many varieties also emulate the classic high-centered hybrid tea flower shape. Miniature roses are often marketed and sold by the floral industry as houseplants, but it is important to remember that these plants are largely descended from outdoor shrubs native to temperate regions; thus, most miniature rose varieties require an annual period of cold dormancy to survive. Examples: 'Petite de Hollande' (Miniature Centifolia, once-blooming), 'Cupcake' (Modern Miniature, repeat-blooming).
Climbing/Rambling — As is the case with Miniature roses, all aforementioned classes of roses, both Old and Modern, have "climbing" forms, whereby the canes of the shrubs grow much longer and more flexible than the normal ("bush") forms. In the Old Garden Roses, this is often simply the natural growth habit of many cultivars and varieties; in many Modern roses, however, climbing roses are the results of spontaneous mutations. For example, 'Climbing Peace' is designated as a "Climbing Hybrid Tea," for it is genetically identical to the normal "shrub" form of the 'Peace' hybrid tea rose, except that its canes are long and flexible, i.e. "climbing." Most Climbing roses grow anywhere from 8'–20' in height and exhibit repeat-bloom. Rambler roses, although technically a separate class, are often lumped together with climbing roses. They also exhibit long, flexible canes, but are distinguished from true climbers in two ways: A larger overall size (20'–30' tall is common), and a once-blooming habit. It should be noted that both climbing roses and rambling roses are not true vines such as ivy, clematis or wisteria; they lack the ability to cling to supports on their own, and must be manually trained and tied over structures such as arbors and pergolas. Examples: 'Blaze' (repeat-blooming climber), 'American Pillar' (once-blooming rambler).
English/David Austin — Although not officially recognized as a separate class of roses by any established rose authority, English (aka David Austin) roses are often set aside as such by consumers and retailers alike. They were conceptualized and created in the 1960s by David Austin of Shropshire, England, who wanted to rekindle interest in Old Garden Roses by hybridizing OGRs with modern hybrid teas and floribundas. The idea was to create a new group of roses that featured blooms with old-fashioned shapes and fragrances, evocative of classic gallica, alba and damask roses, but with modern repeat-blooming characteristics and the larger modern color range as well. Austin mostly succeeded in his mission; his tribe of "English" roses, now numbering hundreds of varieties, has been warmly embraced by the gardening public and are widely available to consumers. It should be noted that the typical winterhardiness and disease-resistance of the classic Old Garden Roses has largely been compromised in the process; many English roses are susceptible to the same disease problems that plague modern hybrid teas and floribundas, and many are not hardy north of USDA Zone 5. Examples: 'Mary Rose,' 'Graham Thomas', 'Tamora'.
Landscape Roses — These are a modern classifation of rose developed mainly for mass amenity planting. In the late 20th century, traditional hybrid tea and floribunda rose varieties fell out of favor amid gardeners and landscapers, as they are often labor- and chemical-intensive plants susceptible to myriad pest and disease problems. So-called "landscape" roses have thus been developed to fill the consumer desire for a garden rose that offers color, form and fragrance, but is also low maintenance and easy to care for. Most landscape roses having the following characteristics:
Good disease resistance
Lower growing habit, usually under 60cm
Repeat flowering
Disease and pest resistance
Non suckering, growing on their own roots.
Principal parties involved in the breeding of new Landscape Roses varieties are Werner Noak (Germany) Meidiland Roses (France) Boot&Co. (Netherlands)
Pruning
Rose pruning, sometimes regarded as a horticultural art form, is largely dependent on the type of rose to be pruned, the reason for pruning, and the time of year it is at the time of the desired pruning.
Most Old Garden Roses of strict European heritage (albas, damasks, gallicas, etc.) are shrubs that bloom once yearly, in late spring or early summer, on two-year-old (or older) canes. As such, their pruning requirements are quite minimal, and are overall similar to any other analogous shrub, such as lilac or forsythia. Generally, only old, spindly canes should be pruned away, to make room for new canes. One-year-old canes should never be pruned because doing so will remove next year's flower buds. The shrubs can also be pruned back lightly, immediately after the blooms fade, to reduce the overall height or width of the plant. In general, pruning requirements for OGRs are much less laborious and regimented than for Modern hybrids.
Modern hybrids, including the hybrid teas, floribundas, grandifloras, modern miniatures, and English roses, have a complex genetic background that almost always includes China roses (R. chinensis). China roses were evergrowing, everblooming roses from humid subtropical regions that bloomed constantly on any new vegetative growth produced during the growing season. Their modern hybrid descendants exhibit similar habits: Unlike Old Garden Roses, modern hybrids bloom continuously (until stopped by frost) on any new canes produced during the growing season. They therefore require pruning away of any spent flowering stem, in order to divert the plant's energy into producing new growth and thence new flowers.
Additionally, Modern Hybrids planted in cold-winter climates will almost universally require a "hard" annual pruning (reducing all canes to 8"–12" in height) in early spring. Again, because of their complex China rose background, Modern Hybrids are typically not as cold-hardy as European OGRs, and low winter temperatures often desiccate or kill exposed canes. In spring, if left unpruned, these damanged canes will often die back all the way to the shrub's root zone, resulting in a weakened, disfigured plant. The annual "hard" pruning of hybrid teas, floribundas, etc. should generally be done in early spring; most gardeners coincide this pruning with the blooming of forsythia shrubs. Canes should be cut about 1/2" above a vegetative bud (identifiable as a point on a cane where a leaf once grew).
For both Old Garden Roses and Modern Hybrids, any weak, damaged or diseased growth should be pruned away completely, regardless of the time of year. Any pruning of any rose should also be done so that the cut is made at a forty five degree angle above a vegetative bud. This helps the pruned stem callus over more quickly, and also mitigates moisture buildup over the cut, which can lead to disease problems.
For all general rose pruning (including cutting flowers for arrangements), sharp secateurs (hand-held, sickle-bladed pruners) should be used to cut any growth 1/2" or less in diameter. For canes of a thickness greater than 1/2", pole loppers or a small handsaw are generally more effective; secateurs may be damaged or broken in such instances.
Deadheading
Deadheading is the simple practice of manually removing any spent, faded, withered or discoloured flowers from rose shrubs over the course of the blooming season. In Modern Hybrid roses, this is done for several reasons: To promote rebloom, to keep shrubs looking tidy, to eliminate stem dieback (see Pruning, above) and to eliminate excess debris accumulation in the garden.
Deadheading is not as necessary with Old Garden Roses, as it will not promote rebloom in any once-blooming varieties, but can still be done after the flowers fade for aesthetic purposes.
History
The rose has always been valued for its beauty and has a long history of symbolism. The ancient Greeks and Romans identified the rose with their goddesses of love referred to as Aphrodite and Venus. In Rome a wild rose would be placed on the door of a room where secret or confidential matters were discussed. The phrase sub rosa, or "under the rose", means to keep a secret — derived from this ancient Roman practice.
Early Christians identified the five petals of the rose with the five wounds of Christ. Despite this interpretation, their leaders were hesitant to adopt it because of its association with Roman excesses and pagan ritual. The red rose was eventually adopted as a symbol of the blood of the Christian martyrs. Roses also later came to be associated with the Virgin Mary.
Rose culture came into its own in Europe in the 1800s with the introduction of perpetual blooming roses from China. There are currently thousands of varieties of roses developed for bloom shape, size, fragrance and even for lack of prickles.
Culture
A Red rose
Roses are ancient symbols of love and beauty. The rose was sacred to a number of goddesses (including Isis and Aphrodite), and is often used as a symbol of the Virgin Mary. Roses are so important that the word means pink or red in a variety of languages (such as Romance languages, Greek, and Polish).
The rose is the national flower of England and the United States[6], as well as being the symbol of England Rugby, and of the Rugby Football Union. It is also the provincial flower of Yorkshire and Lancashire in England (the white rose and red rose respectively) and of Alberta (the wild rose), and the state flower of four US states: Iowa and North Dakota (R. arkansana), Georgia (R. laevigata), and New York[7] (Rosa generally). Portland, Oregon counts "City of Roses" among its nicknames, and holds an annual Rose Festival.
Roses are occasionally the basis of design for rose windows, such windows comprising five or ten segments (the five petals and five sepals of a rose) or multiples thereof; however most Gothic rose windows are much more elaborate and were probably based originally on the wheel and other symbolism.
A red rose (often held in a hand) is also a symbol of socialism or social democracy; it is also used as a symbol by the British and Irish Labour Parties, as well as by the French, Spanish (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party), Portuguese, Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Finnish, Brazilian, Dutch (Partij van de Arbeid) and European socialist parties. This originates from the red rose used as a badge by the marchers in the May 1968 street protests in Paris. White Rose was a World War II non violent resistance group in Germany.
Symbolism
Further information: Rose (symbolism)
According to the "language of flowers", certain rose colors carry specific symbolic meanings.
Rosa canina (Dog Rose) flower
Red rose: Deepest love and respect.
Pink rose: Grace.
White rose: Innocence.
Red: love, used to say "I love you," but also stands for courage and respect.
Red & White Together or White Roses with Red Edges signify unity and togetherness.
Pink: symbolizes grace, sophistication and elegance. Also symbolizes gentle feelings of love and friendship.
Dark Pink: Gratefulness and appreciation.
Light Pink: Admiration, sympathy
White: Innocence, purity, secrecy, friendship, reverence and humility.
Yellow: Often akin to joy and deep friendship or platonic love. In German speaking countries, however, they can mean jealousy and infidelity.
Yellow with red tips: Symbolizes a gesture of falling in love.
Orange or Coral symbolizes enthusiasm and desire
Burgundy: Beauty
Blue: Mystery
Further information: blue rose
Green: Calm
Black: used to signify death (black being the color of death) often of old habits. In a positive light it signifies rebirth after death. Also, slavish devotion (as a true black rose is impossible to produce).
Purple: protection (paternal/maternal love)
The rose also has various supernatural and literary attributes.
Pale Colors:convey warmth and friendship.
A Dozen Roses: stand for "there are dozens of ways I care about you."
Two Dozen Roses: stands for the 24 hours in a day and tells that "you think about them every hour".
Three Dozen Roses: signify a romantic attachment unlike any other.
Four Dozen Roses: mean unchanging and unconditional love.
The name originates from Latin rosa, borrowed through Oscan from colonial Greek in southern Italy: rhodon (Aeolic form: wrodon), from Aramaic wurrdā, from Assyrian wurtinnu, from Old Iranian *warda (cf. Armenian vard, Avestan warda, Sogdian ward, Parthian wâr).[4][5][6]
Rose hips are sometimes eaten, mainly for their vitamin C content. They are usually pressed and filtered to make rose hip syrup, as the fine hairs surrounding the seeds are unpleasant to eat (resembling itching powder). They can also be used to make herbal tea, jam, jelly and marmalade. A rose that has aged or gone rotten may not be particularly fragrant, but the rose's basic chemistry prevents it from producing a pungent odor of any kind. Notably, when balled and mashed together the fragrance of the rose is enhanced.[7] The fragrance of particularly large balls of mashed roses is enhanced even further. Rose hips are also used to produce an oil used in skin products. Rose shrubs are often used by homeowners and landscape architects for home security purposes. The sharp thorns of many rose species deter unauthorized persons from entering private properties, and may prevent break-ins if planted under windows and near drainpipes. The aesthetic characteristics of rose shrubs, in conjunction with their home security qualities, makes them a considerable alternative to artificial fences and walls.[1][2]
Contents[hide]
1 Botany
1.1 Species
2 Pests and diseases
3 Cultivation
4 Pruning
4.1 Deadheading
5 History
6 Culture
6.1 Symbolism
6.2 In art
6.3 Quotes
7 Perfume
8 Notable rose growers
8.1 Rose Capital of America
8.2 Individuals
9 Notes
10 See also
Botany
Rosa canina hips
The leaves of most species are 5–15 centimetres long, pinnate, with (3–) 5–9 (–13) leaflets and basal stipules; the leaflets usually have a serrated margin, and often a few small prickles on the underside of the stem. The vast majority of roses are deciduous, but a few (particularly in Southeast Asia) are evergreen or nearly so.
The flowers of most species roses have five petals, with the exception of Rosa sericea, which usually has only four. Each petal is divided into two distinct lobes and is usually white or pink, though in a few species yellow or red. Beneath the petals are five sepals (or in the case of some Rosa sericea, four). These may be long enough to be visible when viewed from above and appear as green points alternating with the rounded petals. The ovary is inferior, developing below the petals and sepals.
The aggregate fruit of the rose is a berry-like structure called a rose hip. Rose species that produce open-faced flowers are attractive to pollinating bees and other insects, thus more apt to produce hips. Many of the domestic cultivars are so tightly petalled that they do not provide access for pollination. The hips of most species are red, but a few (e.g. Rosa pimpinellifolia) have dark purple to black hips. Each hip comprises an outer fleshy layer, the hypanthium, which contains 5–160 "seeds" (technically dry single-seeded fruits called achenes) embedded in a matrix of fine, but stiff, hairs. Rose hips of some species, especially the Dog Rose (Rosa canina) and Rugosa Rose (Rosa rugosa), are very rich in vitamin C, among the richest sources of any plant. The hips are eaten by fruit-eating birds such as thrushes and waxwings, which then disperse the seeds in their droppings. Some birds, particularly finches, also eat the seeds.
While the sharp objects along a rose stem are commonly called "thorns", they are actually prickles — outgrowths of the epidermis (the outer layer of tissue of the stem). True thorns, as produced by e.g. Citrus or Pyracantha, are modified stems, which always originate at a node and which have nodes and internodes along the length of the thorn itself. Rose prickles are typically sickle-shaped hooks, which aid the rose in hanging onto other vegetation when growing over it. Some species such as Rosa rugosa and R. pimpinellifolia have densely packed straight spines, probably an adaptation to reduce browsing by animals, but also possibly an adaptation to trap wind-blown sand and so reduce erosion and protect their roots (both of these species grow naturally on coastal sand dunes). Despite the presence of prickles, roses are frequently browsed by deer. A few species of roses only have vestigial prickles that have no points.
Species
Further information: List of Rosa species
Rosa multiflora
Some representative rose species
Rosa canina — Dog Rose, Briar Bush
Rosa chinensis — China Rose
Rosa dumalis — Glaucous Dog Rose
Rosa gallica — Gallic Rose, French Rose
Rosa gigantea (syn. R. x odorata gigantea)
Rosa glauca (syn. R. rubrifolia) — Redleaf Rose
Rosa laevigata (syn. R. sinica) — Cherokee Rose, Camellia Rose, Mardan Rose
Rosa multiflora — Multiflora Rose
Rosa persica (syn. Hulthemia persica, R. simplicifolia)
Rosa roxburghii — Chestnut Rose, Burr Rose
Rosa rubiginosa (syn. R. eglanteria) — Eglantine, Sweet Brier
Rosa rugosa — Rugosa Rose, Japanese Rose
Rosa spinosissima — Scotch Rose
Rosa stellata — Gooseberry Rose, Sacramento Rose
Rosa virginiana (syn. R. lucida) — Virginia Rose
Pests and diseases
Main articles: Pests and diseases of roses and List of rose diseases
Roses are subject to several diseases. The most serious is rose rust (Phragmidium mucronatum), a species of rust fungus, which can defoliate the plant. More common, though less debilitating, are rose black spot, caused by the fungus Diplocarpon rosae, which makes circular black spots on the leaves in summer, and powdery mildew, caused by Sphaerotheca pannosa. Fungal diseases are best solved by a preventative fungicidal spray program rather than by trying to cure an infection after it is visible. After the disease is visible, its spread can be minimized through pruning and use of fungicides although actual infection cannot be reversed. Some rose varieties are considerably less susceptible than others to fungal disease.
The main insect pest affecting roses is the aphid (greenfly), which sucks the sap and weakens the plant. Ladybirds are a predator of aphids and should be encouraged in the rose garden. Spraying with insecticide is often recommended but should be done with care to minimize loss of beneficial insects. Roses are also used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species; see list of Lepidoptera that feed on roses.
Cultivation
See also: Rose cultivars named after celebrities
Rose-picking in the Rose Valley near the town of Kazanlak in Bulgaria, 1870s, engraving by Austro-Hungarian traveller F. Kanitz
Rosa x alba 'Alba Semiplena', an Alba rose
Rosa 'Maiden's Blush', an Alba rose
'Rosa 'Zéphirine Drouhin', a Bourbon rose
Rosa 'Cajun Sunrise', a modern Hybrid Tea rose
Rosa 'Borussia', a modern Floribunda rose
Rosa 'Climbing Souvenir de la Malmaison', a Bourbon rose
Roses are one of the most popular garden shrubs, as well as the most popular and commonly sold florists' flowers. In addition to their great economic importance as a florists crop, roses are also of great value to the perfume industry.
Many thousands of rose hybrids and cultivars have been bred and selected for garden use, mostly double-flowered with many or all of the stamens mutated into additional petals. As long ago as 1840 a collection numbering over one thousand different cultivars, varieties and species was possible when a rosarium was planted by Loddiges nursery for Abney Park Cemetery, an early Victorian garden cemetery and arboretum in England. Twentieth-century rose breeders generally emphasized size and color, producing large, attractive blooms with little or no scent. Many wild and "old-fashioned" roses, by contrast, have a strong sweet scent.
Roses thrive in temperate climates, though certain species and cultivars can flourish in sub-tropical and even tropical climates, especially when grafted onto appropriate rootstock.
There is no single system of classification for garden roses. In general, however, roses are placed in one of three main groups:
Wild Roses — The wild roses includes the species listed above and some of their hybrids.
Old Garden Roses — Most Old Garden Roses are classified into one of the following groups. In general, Old Garden Roses of European or Mediterranean origin are once-blooming shrubs, with notably fragrant, double-flowered blooms primarily in shades of white, pink and red. The shrubs' foliage tends to be highly disease-resistant, and they generally bloom only on two-year-old canes.
Alba — Literally "white roses", derived from R. arvensis and the closely allied R. alba. These are some of the oldest garden roses, probably brought to Great Britain by the Romans. The shrubs flower once yearly in the spring with blossoms of white or pale pink. The shrubs frequently feature gray-green foliage and a climbing habit of growth . Examples: 'Alba Semiplena', 'White Rose of York'.
Gallica — The gallica roses have been developed from R. gallica, which is a native of central and southern Europe. They flower once in the summer over low shrubs rarely over 4' tall. Unlike most other once-blooming Old Garden Roses, the gallica class includes shades of red, maroon and deep purplish crimson. Examples: 'Cardinal de Richelieu', 'Charles de Mills', 'Rosa Mundi' (R. gallica versicolor).
Damask — Robert de Brie is given credit for bringing them from Persia to Europe sometime between 1254 and 1276, although there is evidence from ancient Roman frescoes that at least one damask rose, the Autumn Damask, existed in Europe for hundreds of years prior. Summer damasks (crosses between gallica roses and R. phoenicea) bloom once in summer. Autumn damasks (Gallicas crossed with R. moschata) bloom again later, in the autumn. Shrubs tend to have rangy to sprawly growth habits and vicious thorns. The flowers typically have a more loose petal formation than gallicas, as well as a stronger, tangy fragrance. Examples: 'Ispahan', 'Madame Hardy'.
Centifolia (or Provence) — These roses, raised in the seventeenth century in the Netherlands, are named for their "one hundred" petals; they are often called "cabbage" roses due to the globular shape of the flowers. The result of damask roses crossed with albas, the centifolias are all once-flowering. As a class, they are notable for their inclination to produce mutations of various sizes and forms, including moss roses and some of the first miniature roses (see below) . Examples: 'Centifolia', 'Paul Ricault'.
Moss — Mutations of primarily centifolia roses (or sometimes damasks), these have a mossy excrescence on the stems and sepals that often emits a pleasant woodsy or balsam scent when rubbed. Moss roses are cherised for this unique trait, but as a group they have contributed nothing to the development of new rose classifications. Moss roses with centifolia background are once-flowering; some moss roses exhibit repeat-blooming, indicative of Autumn Damask parentage. Example: 'Common Moss' (centifolia-moss), 'Alfred de Dalmas' (Autumn Damask moss).
China — The China roses were grown in East Asia for thousands of years and finally reached Western Europe in the late 1700s. Compared to the aforementioned European rose classes, the China roses had smaller, less fragrant, more poorly formed blooms carried over twiggier, more cold-sensitive shrubs. Yet they possessed the amazing ability to bloom repeatedly throughout the summer and into late autumn, unlike their European counterparts. This made them highly desirable for hybridization purposes in the early 1800s. The flowers of China roses were also notable for their tendency to "suntan," or darken over time — unlike the blooms of European roses, which tended to fade after opening. Four China roses ('Slater's Crimson China', 1792; 'Parsons' Pink China', 1793; 'Hume's Blush China', 1809; and 'Parks' Yellow Tea Scented China', 1824) were brought to Europe in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. This brought about the creation of the first classes of repeat-flowering Old Garden Roses, and later the Modern Garden Roses. Examples: 'Old Blush China', 'Mutabilis'.
Portland — The Portland roses represent the first group of crosses between China roses and European roses, specifically gallicas and damasks. They were named after the Duchess of Portland who received (from Italy in 1800) a rose then known as R. paestana or 'Scarlet Four Seasons' Rose' (now known simply as 'The Portland Rose'). The whole class of Portland roses was thence developed from that one rose. The first repeat-flowering class of rose with fancy European-style blossoms, they are mostly descended from hybrids between damask and China roses. The plants tend to be fairly short and shrubby, with proportionately short flower stalks. Example: 'James Veitch', 'Rose de Rescht', 'Comte de Chambourd'.
Bourbon — Bourbons originated on l'Île de Bourbon (now called Réunion) off the coast of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. They are most likely the result of a cross between the Autumn Damask and the 'Old Blush' China rose, both of which were frequently used as hedging materials on the island. They flower repeatedly over vigorous, frequently semi-climbing shrubs with glossy foliage and purple-tinted canes. They were first Introduced in France in 1823. Examples: 'Louise Odier', 'Mme. Pierre Oger', 'Zéphirine Drouhin'.
Noisette — The first Noisette rose was raised as a hybrid seedling by a South Carolina rice planter named John Champneys. Its parents were the China Rose 'Parson's Pink' and the autumn-flowering musk rose (Rosa moschata), resulting in a vigorous climbing rose producing huge clusters of small pink flowers from spring to fall. Champneys sent seedlings of his rose (called 'Champneys' Pink Cluster') to his gardening friend, Philippe Noisette, who in turn sent plants to his brother Louis in Paris, who then introduced 'Blush Noisette' in 1817. The first Noisettes were small-blossomed, fairly winter-hardy climbers, but later infusions of Tea rose genes created a Tea-Noisette subclass with larger flowers, smaller clusters, and considerably reduced winter hardiness. Examples: 'Blush Noisette', 'Mme. Alfred Carriere' (Noisette), 'Marechal Niel' (Tea-Noisette). (See French and German articles on Noisette roses)
Tea — The result of crossing two of the original China roses ('Hume's Blush China' and 'Parks' Yellow Tea Scented China') with various Bourbons and Noisette roses, tea roses are considerably more tender than other Old Garden Roses (due to cold-tender Rosa gigantea in the ancestry of the 'Parks' Yellow' rose). The teas are repeat-flowering roses, named for their fragrance being reminiscent of Chinese black tea (although this is not always the case). The color range includes pastel shades of white, pink and yellow, and the petals tend to roll back at the edges, producing a petal with a pointed tip. The individual flowers of many cultivars are semi-pendent and nodding, due to weak flower stalks. Examples: 'Lady Hillingdon', 'Maman Cochet'.
Hybrid Perpetual — The dominant class of roses in Victorian England, they first emerged in 1838 and were derived to a great extent from the Bourbons. They became the most popular garden and florist roses of northern Europe at the time, as the tender tea roses would not thrive in cold climates. The "perpetual" in the name hints at repeat-flowering, but many varieties of this class had poor reflowering habits; the tendency was for a massive spring bloom, followed by either scattered summer flowering, a smaller autumn burst, or sometimes nothing at all until next spring. Due to a limited color palette (white, pink, red) and lack of reliable repeat-bloom, the hybrid perpetuals were ultimately overshadowed by their own descendants, the Hybrid Teas. Examples: 'Ferdinand Pichard', 'Reine Des Violettes', 'Paul Neyron'.
Hybrid Musk - This group was primarily developed by Rev. Joseph Pemberton, a British rosarian, in the first decades of the 20th century, based upon 'Aglaia', a 1896 cross by Peter Lambert. A seedling of this rose, 'Trier', is considered to the be foundation of the class. The genetics of the class are somewhat obscure, as some of the parents are unknown. Rose multiflora, however, is known to be one parent, and R. moschata (the musk rose) also figures in its heritage, though it is considered to be less important than the name would suggest. Hybrid musks are disease-resistant, remontant and generally cluster-flowered, with a strong, characteristic "musk" scent.[3][4] Examples include 'Buff Beauty' and 'Penelope'.
Bermuda "Mystery" Roses — A group of several dozen "found" roses that have been grown in Bermuda for at least a century. The roses have significant value and interest for those growing roses in tropical and semi-tropical regions, since they are highly resistant to both nematode damage and the fungal diseases that plague rose culture in hot, humid areas, and capable of blooming in hot and humid weather. Most of these roses are likely Old Garden Rose cultivars that have otherwise dropped out of cultivation, or sports thereof. They are "mystery roses" because their "proper" historical names have been lost. Tradition dictates that they are named after the owner of the garden where they were rediscovered.
Miscellaneous — There are also a few smaller classes (such as Scots, Sweet Brier) and some climbing classes of old roses (including Ayrshire, Climbing China, Laevigata, Sempervirens, Boursault, Climbing Tea, and Climbing Bourbon). Those classes with both climbing and shrub forms are often grouped together.
Modern Garden Roses — Classification of modern roses can be quite confusing because many modern roses have old garden roses in their ancestry and their form varies so much. The classifications tend to be by growth and flowering characteristics, such as "large-flowered shrub", "recurrent, large-flowered shrub", "cluster-flowered", "rambler recurrent", or "ground-cover non-recurrent". The following includes the most notable and popular classifications of Modern Garden Roses:
Hybrid Tea — The favourite rose for much of the history of modern roses, hybrid teas were initially created by hybridizing Hybrid Perpetuals with Tea roses in the late 1800s. 'La France,' created in 1867, is universally acknowledged as the first indication of a new class of roses. Hybrid teas exhibit traits midway between both parents: hardier than the teas but less hardy than the hybrid perpetuals, and more everblooming than the hybrid perpetuals but less so than the teas. The flowers are well-formed with large, high-centered buds, and each flowering stem typically terminates in a single shapely bloom. The shrubs tend to be stiffly upright and sparsely foliaged, which today is often seen as a liability in the landscape. The hybrid tea class is important in being the first class of roses to include genes from the old Austrian brier rose (Rosa foetida). This resulted in an entirely new color range for roses: shades of deep yellow, apricot, copper, orange, true scarlet, yellow bicolors, lavender, gray, and even brown were now possible. The new color range did much to skyrocket hybrid tea popularity in the 20th century, but these colors came at a price: Rosa foetida also passed on a tendency toward disease-susceptibility, scentless blooms, and an intolerance of pruning, to its descendants. Hybrid teas became the single most popular class of garden rose of the 20th century; today, their reputation as being more high maintenance than many other rose classes has led to a decline in hybrid tea popularity among gardeners and landscapers in favor of lower-maintenance "landscape" roses. The hybrid tea remains the standard rose of the floral industry, however, and is still favoured in small gardens in formal situations. Examples: 'Peace', 'Mr. Lincoln,' 'Double Delight.'
Polyantha — Literally "many-flowered" roses, from the Greek "poly" (many) and "anthos" (flower). Originally derived from crosses between two East Asian species (Rosa chinensis and R. multiflora), polyanthas first appeared in France in the late 1800s alongside the hybrid teas. They featured short plants — some compact, others spreading in habit — with tiny blooms (1" in diameter on average) carried in large sprays, in the typical rose colors of white, pink and red. Their main claim to fame was their prolific bloom: From spring to fall, a healthy polyantha shrub might be literally covered in flowers, creating a strong color impact in the landscape. Polyantha roses are still regarded as low-maintenance, disease-resistant garden roses today, and remain popular for that reason. Examples: 'Cecile Brunner', 'The Fairy', 'Red Fairy'.
Floribunda — Rose breeders quickly saw the value in crossing polyanthas with hybrid teas, to create roses with that bloomed with the polyantha profusion, but with hybrid tea floral beauty and color range. In 1909, the first polyantha/hybrid tea cross, 'Gruss an Aachen,' was created, with characteristics midway between both parent classes. As the larger, more shapely flowers and hybrid-tea-like growth habit separated these new roses from polyanthas and hybrid teas alike, a new class was created and named Floribunda, Latin for "many-flowering." Typical floribundas feature stiff shrubs, smaller and bushier than the average hybrid tea but less dense and sprawling than the average polyantha. The flowers are often smaller than hybrid teas but are carried in large sprays, giving a better floral effect in the garden. Floribundas are found in all hybrid tea colors and with the classic hybrid tea-shaped blossom, sometimes differing from hybrid teas only in their cluster-flowering habit. Today they are still used in large bedding schemes in public parks and similar spaces. Examples: 'Dainty Maid', 'Iceberg', 'Tuscan Sun'.
Grandiflora — Grandifloras (Latin for "large-flowered") were the class of roses created in the mid 1900s to designate back-crosses between hybrid teas and floribundas that fit neither category — specifically, the 'Queen Elizabeth' rose, which was introduced in 1954[5]. Grandiflora shrubs are typically larger than either hybrid teas or floribundas, and feature hybrid tea-style flowers borne in small clusters of three to five, similar to a floribunda. Grandifloras maintained some popularity from about the 1950s to the 1980s but today they are much less popular than either the hybrid teas or the floribundas. Examples: 'Queen Elizabeth', 'Comanche,' 'Montezuma'.
Meillandine (a miniature rose) in a terra cotta flowerpot
Miniature — All of the classes of Old Garden Roses — gallicas, centifolias, etc. — had corresponding miniature forms, although these were once-flowering just as their larger forms were. As with the standard-sized varieties, miniature Old Garden roses were crossed with repeat-blooming Asian species to produce everblooming miniature roses. Today, miniature roses are represented by twiggy, repeat-flowering shrubs ranging from 6" to 36" in height, with most falling in the 12"–24" height range. Blooms come in all the hybrid tea colors; many varieties also emulate the classic high-centered hybrid tea flower shape. Miniature roses are often marketed and sold by the floral industry as houseplants, but it is important to remember that these plants are largely descended from outdoor shrubs native to temperate regions; thus, most miniature rose varieties require an annual period of cold dormancy to survive. Examples: 'Petite de Hollande' (Miniature Centifolia, once-blooming), 'Cupcake' (Modern Miniature, repeat-blooming).
Climbing/Rambling — As is the case with Miniature roses, all aforementioned classes of roses, both Old and Modern, have "climbing" forms, whereby the canes of the shrubs grow much longer and more flexible than the normal ("bush") forms. In the Old Garden Roses, this is often simply the natural growth habit of many cultivars and varieties; in many Modern roses, however, climbing roses are the results of spontaneous mutations. For example, 'Climbing Peace' is designated as a "Climbing Hybrid Tea," for it is genetically identical to the normal "shrub" form of the 'Peace' hybrid tea rose, except that its canes are long and flexible, i.e. "climbing." Most Climbing roses grow anywhere from 8'–20' in height and exhibit repeat-bloom. Rambler roses, although technically a separate class, are often lumped together with climbing roses. They also exhibit long, flexible canes, but are distinguished from true climbers in two ways: A larger overall size (20'–30' tall is common), and a once-blooming habit. It should be noted that both climbing roses and rambling roses are not true vines such as ivy, clematis or wisteria; they lack the ability to cling to supports on their own, and must be manually trained and tied over structures such as arbors and pergolas. Examples: 'Blaze' (repeat-blooming climber), 'American Pillar' (once-blooming rambler).
English/David Austin — Although not officially recognized as a separate class of roses by any established rose authority, English (aka David Austin) roses are often set aside as such by consumers and retailers alike. They were conceptualized and created in the 1960s by David Austin of Shropshire, England, who wanted to rekindle interest in Old Garden Roses by hybridizing OGRs with modern hybrid teas and floribundas. The idea was to create a new group of roses that featured blooms with old-fashioned shapes and fragrances, evocative of classic gallica, alba and damask roses, but with modern repeat-blooming characteristics and the larger modern color range as well. Austin mostly succeeded in his mission; his tribe of "English" roses, now numbering hundreds of varieties, has been warmly embraced by the gardening public and are widely available to consumers. It should be noted that the typical winterhardiness and disease-resistance of the classic Old Garden Roses has largely been compromised in the process; many English roses are susceptible to the same disease problems that plague modern hybrid teas and floribundas, and many are not hardy north of USDA Zone 5. Examples: 'Mary Rose,' 'Graham Thomas', 'Tamora'.
Landscape Roses — These are a modern classifation of rose developed mainly for mass amenity planting. In the late 20th century, traditional hybrid tea and floribunda rose varieties fell out of favor amid gardeners and landscapers, as they are often labor- and chemical-intensive plants susceptible to myriad pest and disease problems. So-called "landscape" roses have thus been developed to fill the consumer desire for a garden rose that offers color, form and fragrance, but is also low maintenance and easy to care for. Most landscape roses having the following characteristics:
Good disease resistance
Lower growing habit, usually under 60cm
Repeat flowering
Disease and pest resistance
Non suckering, growing on their own roots.
Principal parties involved in the breeding of new Landscape Roses varieties are Werner Noak (Germany) Meidiland Roses (France) Boot&Co. (Netherlands)
Pruning
Rose pruning, sometimes regarded as a horticultural art form, is largely dependent on the type of rose to be pruned, the reason for pruning, and the time of year it is at the time of the desired pruning.
Most Old Garden Roses of strict European heritage (albas, damasks, gallicas, etc.) are shrubs that bloom once yearly, in late spring or early summer, on two-year-old (or older) canes. As such, their pruning requirements are quite minimal, and are overall similar to any other analogous shrub, such as lilac or forsythia. Generally, only old, spindly canes should be pruned away, to make room for new canes. One-year-old canes should never be pruned because doing so will remove next year's flower buds. The shrubs can also be pruned back lightly, immediately after the blooms fade, to reduce the overall height or width of the plant. In general, pruning requirements for OGRs are much less laborious and regimented than for Modern hybrids.
Modern hybrids, including the hybrid teas, floribundas, grandifloras, modern miniatures, and English roses, have a complex genetic background that almost always includes China roses (R. chinensis). China roses were evergrowing, everblooming roses from humid subtropical regions that bloomed constantly on any new vegetative growth produced during the growing season. Their modern hybrid descendants exhibit similar habits: Unlike Old Garden Roses, modern hybrids bloom continuously (until stopped by frost) on any new canes produced during the growing season. They therefore require pruning away of any spent flowering stem, in order to divert the plant's energy into producing new growth and thence new flowers.
Additionally, Modern Hybrids planted in cold-winter climates will almost universally require a "hard" annual pruning (reducing all canes to 8"–12" in height) in early spring. Again, because of their complex China rose background, Modern Hybrids are typically not as cold-hardy as European OGRs, and low winter temperatures often desiccate or kill exposed canes. In spring, if left unpruned, these damanged canes will often die back all the way to the shrub's root zone, resulting in a weakened, disfigured plant. The annual "hard" pruning of hybrid teas, floribundas, etc. should generally be done in early spring; most gardeners coincide this pruning with the blooming of forsythia shrubs. Canes should be cut about 1/2" above a vegetative bud (identifiable as a point on a cane where a leaf once grew).
For both Old Garden Roses and Modern Hybrids, any weak, damaged or diseased growth should be pruned away completely, regardless of the time of year. Any pruning of any rose should also be done so that the cut is made at a forty five degree angle above a vegetative bud. This helps the pruned stem callus over more quickly, and also mitigates moisture buildup over the cut, which can lead to disease problems.
For all general rose pruning (including cutting flowers for arrangements), sharp secateurs (hand-held, sickle-bladed pruners) should be used to cut any growth 1/2" or less in diameter. For canes of a thickness greater than 1/2", pole loppers or a small handsaw are generally more effective; secateurs may be damaged or broken in such instances.
Deadheading
Deadheading is the simple practice of manually removing any spent, faded, withered or discoloured flowers from rose shrubs over the course of the blooming season. In Modern Hybrid roses, this is done for several reasons: To promote rebloom, to keep shrubs looking tidy, to eliminate stem dieback (see Pruning, above) and to eliminate excess debris accumulation in the garden.
Deadheading is not as necessary with Old Garden Roses, as it will not promote rebloom in any once-blooming varieties, but can still be done after the flowers fade for aesthetic purposes.
History
The rose has always been valued for its beauty and has a long history of symbolism. The ancient Greeks and Romans identified the rose with their goddesses of love referred to as Aphrodite and Venus. In Rome a wild rose would be placed on the door of a room where secret or confidential matters were discussed. The phrase sub rosa, or "under the rose", means to keep a secret — derived from this ancient Roman practice.
Early Christians identified the five petals of the rose with the five wounds of Christ. Despite this interpretation, their leaders were hesitant to adopt it because of its association with Roman excesses and pagan ritual. The red rose was eventually adopted as a symbol of the blood of the Christian martyrs. Roses also later came to be associated with the Virgin Mary.
Rose culture came into its own in Europe in the 1800s with the introduction of perpetual blooming roses from China. There are currently thousands of varieties of roses developed for bloom shape, size, fragrance and even for lack of prickles.
Culture
A Red rose
Roses are ancient symbols of love and beauty. The rose was sacred to a number of goddesses (including Isis and Aphrodite), and is often used as a symbol of the Virgin Mary. Roses are so important that the word means pink or red in a variety of languages (such as Romance languages, Greek, and Polish).
The rose is the national flower of England and the United States[6], as well as being the symbol of England Rugby, and of the Rugby Football Union. It is also the provincial flower of Yorkshire and Lancashire in England (the white rose and red rose respectively) and of Alberta (the wild rose), and the state flower of four US states: Iowa and North Dakota (R. arkansana), Georgia (R. laevigata), and New York[7] (Rosa generally). Portland, Oregon counts "City of Roses" among its nicknames, and holds an annual Rose Festival.
Roses are occasionally the basis of design for rose windows, such windows comprising five or ten segments (the five petals and five sepals of a rose) or multiples thereof; however most Gothic rose windows are much more elaborate and were probably based originally on the wheel and other symbolism.
A red rose (often held in a hand) is also a symbol of socialism or social democracy; it is also used as a symbol by the British and Irish Labour Parties, as well as by the French, Spanish (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party), Portuguese, Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Finnish, Brazilian, Dutch (Partij van de Arbeid) and European socialist parties. This originates from the red rose used as a badge by the marchers in the May 1968 street protests in Paris. White Rose was a World War II non violent resistance group in Germany.
Symbolism
Further information: Rose (symbolism)
According to the "language of flowers", certain rose colors carry specific symbolic meanings.
Rosa canina (Dog Rose) flower
Red rose: Deepest love and respect.
Pink rose: Grace.
White rose: Innocence.
Red: love, used to say "I love you," but also stands for courage and respect.
Red & White Together or White Roses with Red Edges signify unity and togetherness.
Pink: symbolizes grace, sophistication and elegance. Also symbolizes gentle feelings of love and friendship.
Dark Pink: Gratefulness and appreciation.
Light Pink: Admiration, sympathy
White: Innocence, purity, secrecy, friendship, reverence and humility.
Yellow: Often akin to joy and deep friendship or platonic love. In German speaking countries, however, they can mean jealousy and infidelity.
Yellow with red tips: Symbolizes a gesture of falling in love.
Orange or Coral symbolizes enthusiasm and desire
Burgundy: Beauty
Blue: Mystery
Further information: blue rose
Green: Calm
Black: used to signify death (black being the color of death) often of old habits. In a positive light it signifies rebirth after death. Also, slavish devotion (as a true black rose is impossible to produce).
Purple: protection (paternal/maternal love)
The rose also has various supernatural and literary attributes.
Pale Colors:convey warmth and friendship.
A Dozen Roses: stand for "there are dozens of ways I care about you."
Two Dozen Roses: stands for the 24 hours in a day and tells that "you think about them every hour".
Three Dozen Roses: signify a romantic attachment unlike any other.
Four Dozen Roses: mean unchanging and unconditional love.
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